Johann Georg Adam Forster (November 27, 1754^[1] – January 10, 1794) was a German naturalist, ethnologist, travel writer, journalist, and revolutionary. At an early age, he accompanied his father on several scientific expeditions, including James Cook's second voyage to the Pacific. His report from that journey, A Voyage Round the World, contributed significantly to the ethnology of the people of Polynesia and remains a respected work among both scientists and ordinary readers. As a result of the report Forster was admitted to the Royal Society at the early age of twenty-two and came to be considered one of the founders of modern scientific travel literature. Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein, also known as Goethe-Tischbein (born 15 February 1751 in Haina; died 26 February 1829 in Eutin) was a German painter. ... November 27 is the 331st day (332nd on leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1754 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... January 10 is the 10th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1794 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Table of natural history, 1728 Cyclopaedia Natural history is an umbrella term for what are now usually viewed as several distinct scientific disciplines. ... Ethnology (greek ethnos: (non-greek, barbarian) people) is a genre of anthropological study, involving the systematic comparison of the folklore, beliefs and practices of different societies. ... Travel literature is literature which records the people, events, sights and feelings of an author who is touring a foreign place for the sake and pleasure of travel. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... James Cook, portrait by Nathaniel Dance, c. ... View of the Pacific Ocean from Oregon. ... Carving from the ridgepole of a Māori house, ca 1840 This article is about the wider region in the Pacific. ... The premises of the Royal Society in London (first four properties only). ...

After his return to continental Europe, Forster turned towards academics. From 1778 to 1784 he taught natural history at the Collegium Carolinum in Kassel and continued later at Academy of Vilna (1784-1787) until he accepted the position of head librarian at the University of Mainz in 1788. Most of his scientific work during this time consisted of essays on botany and ethnology, but he also prefaced and translated many books about travels and explorations, including a German translation of Cook's diaries. Table of natural history, 1728 Cyclopaedia Natural history is an umbrella term for what are now usually viewed as several distinct scientific disciplines. ... Watershed of the river Weser Kassel (until 1926 officially Cassel) is a city situated along the Fulda River, one of the two sources of the Weser river, in northern Hessen in west-central Germany. ... Vilnius University (Lithuanian Vilniaus Universitetas, Polish Uniwersytet WileÅ„ski, formerly Stefan Batory University) is the oldest university in Eastern Europe and the biggest university in Lithuania. ... Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz (Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz) is a university in the city of Mainz, Germany. ... Pinguicula grandiflora Botany is the scientific study of plantlife. ...

Forster was a central figure of the Enlightenment in Germany, and corresponded with most of its adherents, including Georg Christoph Lichtenberg, who was a close friend of his. His ideas and personality influenced strongly one of the greatest German scientists of the 19th century, Alexander von Humboldt. When the French took control of Mainz in 1792, Forster became one of the founders of the Jacobin Club there and went on to play a leading role in the Mainz Republic, the earliest republican state in Germany. During July 1793 and while he was in Paris as a delegate of the young Mainz Republic, Prussian and Austrian coalition forces regained control of the city and Forster was declared an outlaw. Unable to return to Germany and separated from his friends and family, he died in Paris of illness in early 1794. The Age of Enlightenment refers to either the eighteenth century in European philosophy, or the longer period including the seventeenth century and the Age of Reason. ... Georg Christoph Lichtenberg is an 18th-century German scientist, satirist and anglophile, most famous for his notebooks published posthumously (which he himself called waste books, using the English bookkeeping term). ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... An 1859 portrait of Alexander von Humboldt by the artist Julius Schrader, showing Mount Chimborazo in the background. ... Mainz is a city in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. ... It has been suggested that Jacobin/Sandbox be merged into this article or section. ... The Republic of Mainz was the first democratic state on German territory. ... Republicanism is the ideology of governing a nation as a republic, with an emphasis on Liberty and ruled by the people. ... City flag City coat of arms Motto: Fluctuat nec mergitur (Latin: Tossed by the waves, she does not sink) Location Coordinates Time Zone CET (GMT +1) Administration Country France Région ÃŽle-de-France Département Paris (75) Subdivisions 20 arrondissements Mayor Bertrand Delanoë  (PS) (since 2001) City Statistics Land... Flag of Prussia (1894 - 1918) The Kingdom of Prussia existed from 1701 until 1918, and from 1871 was the leading kingdom of the German Empire, comprising in its last form almost two-thirds of the area of the Empire. ...

Early life

Forster was born in the small village of Nassenhuben (Polish: Mokry Dwór) near Danzig (Gdańsk), in the Polish province of Royal Prussia. GdaÅ„sk (IPA: ; German: , Kashubian: , Late Latin: ; older English Dantzig; also other languages) is the sixth-largest city in Poland, and also its principal seaport and the capital of the Pomeranian Voivodeship. ... Map of Royal Prussia Royal Prussia (Polish: Prusy Królewskie, German: Königliches Preussen) was the western part of two parts of Prussia, which previously were governed as one Lands of the Teutonic Order. ...

He was the oldest of seven surviving children of Johann Reinhold Forster and Justina Elisabeth (née Nicolai). His father was a naturalist, scientist and a Reformed pastor. In 1765, the Russian tsarina Catherine II gave the pastor an assignment to travel in Russia on a research journey and investigate the situation of a German colony at the Volga River. Georg, then ten years old, joined him. They reached the Kirghiz steppe at the lower Volga. On the journey, they discovered several new species.^[2] The young Forster learned there how to conduct scientific research and how to practise cartography. He also became fluent in Russian. Johann Reinhold Forster Johann Reinhold Forster (October 22, 1729 - December 9, 1798) was a German naturalist of Scottish descent. ... The Reformed churches are a group of Christian Protestant denominations historically related by a similar Calvinist system of doctrine, which first arose especially in the Swiss Reformation led by Huldrych Zwingli, but soon afterward appeared in nations throughout Western Europe. ... Main article: Minister of religion A pastor is the head minister or priest of a Christian church. ... A Tsaritsa (Цари́ца), also called tsarina, czarina, or czaritsa, was the title of Tsars wife or a female autocratic ruler(monarch) of Russia or Bulgaria. ... Catherine II of Russia Catherine II of Russia, called the Great (Russian: Екатерина II Великая, Yekaterina II Velikaya; 2 May 1729–17 November 1796 [O.S. 6 November]) — sometimes referred to as an epitome of the enlightened despot — reigned as Empress of Russia for some 34 years, from June 28, 1762 until... Volga German pioneer family commemorative statue in Victoria, Kansas, USA. The Volga Germans (German: or Russlanddeutsche) were ethnic Germans living near the Volga River in the region of southern European Russia around Saratov and to the south, maintaining German culture, language, traditions and religions: Evangelical Lutheranism, Reformed and Roman Catholicism... The Volga river in Western Russia, Europes longest river, with a length of 3,690 km (2,293 miles), provides the core of the largest river system in Europe. ... Motto: none Anthem: National Anthem of the Kyrgyz Republic Capital (largest city) Bishkek Kyrgyz, Russian Government Republic  - President Kurmanbek Bakiyev  - Prime Minister Feliks Kulov Independence from the Soviet Union   - Declared 31 August 1991   - Completed 25 December 1991  Area  - Total 199,900 km² (86th) 77,181 sq mi   - Water (%) 3. ... A steppe in Western Kazakhstan in early spring In physical geography, a steppe (Russian: - step, Ukrainian: - step, Kazakh: - dala), pronounced in English as step, is a plain without trees (apart from those near rivers and lakes); it is similar to a prairie, although a prairie is generally considered as being... Cartography or mapmaking (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write) is the study, practice, science and art of making maps or globes. ...

The report from this journey, which included sharp criticism of the governor of Saratov, was not well-received at the court, and the Forsters did not obtain fair payment for their work^[3] and had to move house. They chose to settle in England in 1766. The father took up teaching at the Dissenter's Academy in Warrington^[4] and also translation work. The young Forster, only thirteen years old, published his first book: an English translation of Lomonosov's history of Russia,^[5] which was well-received in scientific circles.^[6] Saratov (Russian: ) is a major city in southern European Russia. ... The term dissenter (from the Latin dissentire, to disagree), labels one who dissents or disagrees in matters of opinion, belief, etc. ... Warrington is the largest town and borough in the county of Cheshire, in the North-West of England. ... Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (Михаи́л Васи́льевич Ломоно́сов) (November 19 (November 8, Old Style), 1711 – April 15 (April 4, Old Style), 1765) was a Russian writer and polymath who made important contributions to literature, education, and science. ...

Around the world with Captain Cook

James Cook, portrait by Nathaniel Dance, c. 1775, National Maritime Museum, Greenwich

In 1772, Forster's father Johann became a member of the Royal Society. This and the withdrawal of Joseph Banks^[5] resulted in his invitation by the British admiralty to join James Cook's second expedition to the Pacific (1772–1775). Georg Forster joined his father in the expedition again and was appointed as a draughtsman to his father. Johann Forster's task was to work on a scientific report from the journey that was to be published after their return.^[7] Image File history File links Captain James Tiberius Cook official portrait from the National Maritime Museum, United Kingdom File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Captain James Tiberius Cook official portrait from the National Maritime Museum, United Kingdom File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... The National Maritime Museum, Greenwich The National Maritime Museum (NMM) is the leading maritime museum of the United Kingdom, and one of the most important in the world. ... The premises of the Royal Society in London (first four properties only). ... Joseph Banks Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, PRS (February 13, 1743 – June 19, 1820) was an English naturalist and botanist. ... Old Admiralty House, Whitehall, London, Thomas Ripley, architect, 1723-26, was not admired by his contemporaries and earned him some scathing couplets from Alexander Pope The Admiralty was historically the authority in the United Kingdom responsible for the command of the Royal Navy. ... James Cook, portrait by Nathaniel Dance, c. ... James Cook, portrait by Nathaniel Dance, c. ... View of the Pacific Ocean from Oregon. ... An example of a technical drawing with orthographic and isometric view. ...

They embarked on the HMS Resolution on July 13, 1772 in Plymouth. The route led first to the South Atlantic, then through the Indian Ocean and the Southern Ocean to the island of Polynesia and finally around Cape Horn back to England, where the expedition arrived on July 30, 1775. During the three-year journey, the explorers visited New Zealand, the Tonga islands, New Caledonia, Tahiti, the Marquesas Islands and Easter Island. They went further south than anybody before them, almost discovering Antarctica. The journey conclusively disproved the Terra Australis Incognita theory, which claimed there was a big, habitable continent in the South.^[2] Resolution and Adventure with fishing craft in Matavai Bay by William Hodges, painted 1776, shows the two ships at anchor in Tahiti in August 1773. ... July 13 is the 194th day (195th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 171 days remaining. ... Catherine IIs soldiers in the Russo-Turkish War, by Alexandre Benois. ... Plymouth is a city in the southwest of England, or alternatively the Westcountry, and is situated within the traditional county of Devon. ... Look up Atlantic Ocean in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Carving from the ridgepole of a Māori house, ca 1840 This article is about the wider region in the Pacific. ... Cape Horn from the South. ... July 30 is the 211th day (212th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 154 days remaining. ... 1775 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Map of French Polynesia Map of Tahiti and Moorea Tahiti is the largest island of French Polynesia, located in the archipelago of Society Islands in the southern Pacific Ocean at . ... National motto: Mau‘u‘u ha‘e iti Official languages French, Tahitian Political status Dependent territory, administrative division of French Polynesia Capital Tai o Hae Largest City Tai o Hae Area 1,274 km² ( 492 sq. ... motto: ( Rapa Nui ) Also called Te Pito O Te Henua (Ombligo del mundo) (Navel of the world) Discovered by Europeans April 5, 1722 by Jakob Roggeveen Capital Hanga Roa Area  - City Proper  163,6 km² Population  - City (2005)  - Density (city proper) 3. ... Terra Australis is the large continent on the bottom of the map Terra Australis (also: Terra Australis Incognita, Latin for the unknown land of the South) was an imaginary continent, appearing on European maps from the 15th to the 18th century. ...

Supervised by his father, Georg Forster first took up the studies of zoology and botanics of the southern seas, mostly by drawing animals and plants. However, Georg also pursued his own interests which led to completely independent explorations in comparative geography and ethnology. He quickly learned the languages of the Polynesian islands. His reports on the people of Polynesia are approved even to this day, as they show Forster's endeavours to describe the habitants of the southern islands with empathy, sympathy and largely without Western or Christian prejudices.^[8] Zoology is the biological discipline which involves the study of non human animals. ... Botany is the scientific study of plant life. ... Ethnology (greek ethnos: (non-greek, barbarian) people) is a genre of anthropological study, involving the systematic comparison of the folklore, beliefs and practices of different societies. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Western World. ... This article is becoming very long. ...

Resolution and Adventure in Matavai Bay by William Hodges

Unlike Louis Antoine de Bougainville, whose reports from a journey to Tahiti a few years earlier had initiated uncritical noble savage romanticism, Forster had a very sophisticated picture of the societies of the south Pacific islands.^[8] He described various social structures and religions that he encountered on the Society Islands, the Easter Island and in Tonga and New Zealand, and ascribed this diversity to the difference in living conditions of these people. At the same time he also observed that the languages of these fairly widely-scattered islands are quite similar. About the habitants of the Nomuka islands (in the Ha'apai island group of present-day Tonga), he wrote that their languages, vehicles, weapons, furniture, clothes, tattoos, style of beard, in short all of their being matched perfectly with what he had already seen while studying tribes on Tongatapu. However, he wrote, "we could not observe any subordination among them, though this had strongly characterised the natives of Tonga-Tabboo, who seemed to descend even to servility in their obeisance to the king."^[9] Resolution and Adventure with fishing craft in Matavai Bay, painted by William Hodges in 1776, shows the two ships of Commander James Cooks second voyage of exploration in the Pacific at anchor in Tahiti in August 1773. ... Resolution and Adventure with fishing craft in Matavai Bay, painted by William Hodges in 1776, shows the two ships of Commander James Cooks second voyage of exploration in the Pacific at anchor in Tahiti in August 1773. ... Resolution and Adventure with fishing craft in Matavai Bay by William Hodges, painted 1776, shows the two ships at anchor in Tahiti in August 1773. ... Resolution and Adventure with fishing craft in Matavai Bay by William Hodges, painted 1776, shows the two ships at anchor in Tahiti. ... Hodges painting of HMS Resolution and HMS Adventure in Matavai Bay, Tahiti William Hodges (October 28, 1744 - March 6, 1797) was a British painter. ... Louis-Antoine de Bougainville (1729–1811) Louis-Antoine de Bougainville Louis Antoine de Bougainville, Comte de Bougainville (November 12, 1729 – August 20, 1811) was a French navigator and military commander. ... A section of Benjamin Wests The Death of General Wolfe; Wests depiction of this Native American has been considered an idealization in the tradition of the Noble savage (Fryd, 75) In the 18th century culture of Primitivism the noble savage, uncorrupted by the influences of civilization was considered... Human relationships within an ethnically diverse society. ... Social structure is a term frequently used in social theory - yet rarely defined or clearly conceptualised (Jary and Jary 1991, Abercrombie et al 2000). ... The Society Islands (French: Îles de la Société or offically Archipel de la Société) are a group of islands in the south Pacific, administratively part of French Polynesia. ...

The ethnographical items that were collected by Georg and Reinhold Forster are currently presented as the Cook-Forster-Sammlung (Cook-Forster Collection) in the Sammlung für Völkerkunde anthropological collection in Göttingen.^[10] Another collection of items collected by the Forsters is on display at the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford.^[11] Ethnography (from the Greek ethnos = nation and graphein = writing) refers to the genre of writing that presents qualitative description of human social phenomena, based on fieldwork. ... The Sammlung für Völkerkunde (German for Ethnological Collection) at the Institute of Cultural and Social Anthropology of the University of Göttingen is one of Germanys most important ethnological collections. ... Göttingen ( ) is a city in Lower Saxony, Germany. ... Pitt Rivers Museum interior The Pitt Rivers Museum is a museum displaying the archaeological and anthropological collections of the University of Oxford. ...

The journey was rich in scientific results. However, the relations between the Forsters and Captain Cook and his officers were often problematic, both due to the elder Forster's fractious temperament^[2] and Cook's refusal to allow more time for botanizing and other scientific observation. Cook refused scientists on his third journey after his experiences with the Forsters.^[5]

A founder of modern travel literature

These conflicts continued after the journey when the problem of who should write the official account of the travels arose. Lord Sandwich, although willing to pay the promised money, was irritated with Johann Reinhold Forster's opening chapter and tried to establish an editor over him. However, Forster did not want to have his writing corrected "like a theme of a School-boy," and stubbornly refused any compromise in this direction.^[12] As a result, the official account was written by Cook, and the Forsters were deprived of the right to compile the account and did not obtain payment for their work. During the negotiations, the younger Forster decided to release an unofficial account of the travel. In 1777, the book A Voyage round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years, 1772, 3, 4, and 5 was published. This report was the first account of Cook's second voyage (it appeared six weeks before the official publication) and was intended for the general public. The English version and his own translation to German (published 1778-1780) earned the young author real fame. The poet Christoph Martin Wieland praised the book as the most important one of his time, and even today it remains one of the most important journey descriptions ever written. The book also had a significant impact on German literature, culture and science. For instance, Alexander von Humboldt was under its great influence^[13] and it inspired many ethnologists of later times. John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, 1783, by Sir Thomas Gainsborough John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich (3 November 1718 – 3 April 1792) succeeded his grandfather, Edward, the 3rd Earl, in the earldom in 1729. ... Christoph Martin Wieland (September 5, 1733 _ January 20, 1813), was a German poet and writer. ... An 1859 portrait of Alexander von Humboldt by the artist Julius Schrader, showing Mount Chimborazo in the background. ... Ethnology (greek ethnos: (non-greek, barbarian) people) is a genre of anthropological study, involving the systematic comparison of the folklore, beliefs and practices of different societies. ...

Forster wrote well-polished German prose, which was not only scientifically accurate and objective, but also exciting and easy to read. His work was distinguished from conventional travel literature in so far as it did not just present a mere collection of data, instead demonstrating coherent, colourful and reliable ethnographical facts that resulted from detailed and sympathetic observation. He often interrupted the description to enrich it with philosophical remarks about the observations.^[14] His main focus was always on the people he encountered: their behaviour, their customs, habits, religions and forms of social organisation. In A Voyage round the World he even presented the songs sung by the people of Polynesia, complete with lyrics and notation. The book is one of the most important sources concerning the societies of the Southern Pacific from the times before European influence had become significant there. Travel literature is literature which records the people, events, sights and feelings of an author who is touring a foreign place for the sake and pleasure of travel. ... Ethnography (from the Greek ethnos = nation and graphein = writing) refers to the genre of writing that presents qualitative description of human social phenomena, based on fieldwork. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ... Carving from the ridgepole of a Māori house, ca 1840 This article is about the wider region in the Pacific. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ...

Both Forsters also published descriptions of their South Pacific travels in the Magazin von merkwürdigen neuen Reisebeschreibungen ("Magazine of strange new travel accounts") in Berlin, and Georg published a translation of "A Voyage to the South Sea, by Lieutenant William Bligh, London 1792" in 1791-1793. William Bligh in 1814 Vice-Admiral William Bligh FRS RN (9 September 1754 – 7 December 1817) was an officer of the British Royal Navy and colonial administrator. ...

Forster at universities

The publication of A Voyage round the World brought Forster scientific recognition all over Europe. The respectable Royal Society nominated him as a member on 1777-01-09^[15] although he was not even 23 years old. He was granted similar titles from Academies ranging from Berlin to Madrid. These achievements did not give him money though. In 1778, he went to Germany to take a teaching position as a Natural History professor at the Collegium Carolinum in Kassel, where he met Therese Heyne, a classical philologist's daughter. She later became one of the first independent female writers in Germany. They married in 1785 (which was after he left Kassel) and had three children, but their marriage was not happy. From the time in Kassel on, Forster was in active correspondence with important figures of the Enlightenment, including Lessing, Herder, Wieland and Goethe. He also initiated cooperation between the Carolinum in Kassel and the University of Göttingen where his friend Georg Christoph Lichtenberg worked. Together, they founded and published the scientific and literary journal Göttingisches Magazin der Wissenschaften und Litteratur.^[5] Forster's closest friend, Samuel Thomas von Sömmering, arrived in Kassel shortly after Forster, and both were soon involved with the Rosicrucians in Kassel. The premises of the Royal Society in London (first four properties only). ... 1777 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... January 9 is the 9th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Berlin is the capital city and one of the sixteen states of the Federal Republic of Germany. ... Location Coordinates : 40° 23’N , 3°43′0″W Time Zone : CET (GMT +1) - summer: CEST (GMT +2) General information Native name Villa de Madrid (Spanish) Spanish name Villa de Madrid Founded 9th century Postal code 28001-28080 Area code 34 (Spain) + 91 (Villa de Madrid) Website http://www. ... Table of natural history, 1728 Cyclopaedia Natural history is an umbrella term for what are now usually viewed as several distinct scientific disciplines. ... Watershed of the river Weser Kassel (until 1926 officially Cassel) is a city situated along the Fulda River, one of the two sources of the Weser river, in northern Hessen in west-central Germany. ... Therese Huber (7 May 1764 - 15 June 1829) was a German author. ... Philology is the study of ancient texts and languages. ... The Age of Enlightenment refers to either the eighteenth century in European philosophy, or the longer period including the seventeenth century and the Age of Reason. ... Gotthold Ephraim Lessing (22 January 1729 – 15 February 1781), writer, philosopher, publicist, and art critic, was one of the most outstanding German representatives of the Enlightenment era. ... Johann Gottfried Herder Johann Gottfried von Herder (August 25, 1744 – December 18, 1803), German poet, critic, theologian, and philosopher, is best known for his influence on authors such as Goethe and the role he played in the development of the larger cultural movement known as romanticism. ... Christoph Martin Wieland (September 5, 1733 _ January 20, 1813), was a German poet and writer. ... Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. ... Georg Christoph Lichtenberg is an 18th-century German scientist, satirist and anglophile, most famous for his notebooks published posthumously (which he himself called waste books, using the English bookkeeping term). ... Samuel Thomas von Sömmering Samuel Thomas von Soemmering (b. ... The Temple of the Rose Cross, Teophilus Schweighardt Constantiens, 1618. ...

However, by 1783 Forster saw that his involvement with the Rosicrucians not only led him away from real science, but also deeper into debt^[5] (he had never been very good at managing his own expenses^[2]); for these reason Forster was happy to accept a proposal by the Polish Komisja Edukacji Narodowej (Commission of National Education) and became Chair of Natural History at Vilnius University in 1784.^[3] Initially, he was accepted well in Vilnius, but he felt more and more isolated with time. Most of his contacts were still with scientists in Germany; especially notable is his dispute with Immanuel Kant about the definition of race.^[5] In 1785, Forster travelled to Halle where he submitted his thesis about the plants of the South Pacific for a doctorate in medicine.^[16] Back in Vilnius, Forster's ambitions to build a real natural history scientific centre could not get appropriate financial support from the Polish authorities. Moreover, his famous speech on natural history in 1785 went almost unnoticed and was not printed until 1843. These events led to high tensions between him and the local community.^[17] Eventually, he broke the contract six years short of its completion as Catherine II of Russia had given him an offer to take part in a journey around the world for a high honorarium and a position as a professor in Saint Petersburg. This resulted in a conflict between Forster and the influential Polish scientist Jędrzej Śniadecki. However, the Russian proposal was withdrawn and Forster left Vilnius. He then settled in Mainz, where he became head librarian of the University of Mainz, a position his friend Johannes von Müller had held before, who made sure Forster would succeed him when Müller moved to the administration of Elector Friedrich Karl Josef von Erthal.^[5] Komisja Edukacji Narodowej (KEN, Polish for Commission of National Education) was the central educational authority in Poland, created by the Sejm and king Stanisław August Poniatowski on October 14, 1773. ... Table of natural history, 1728 Cyclopaedia Natural history is an umbrella term for what are now usually viewed as several distinct scientific disciplines. ... Vilnius University (Lithuanian Vilniaus Universitetas, Polish Uniwersytet WileÅ„ski, formerly Stefan Batory University) is the oldest university in Eastern Europe and the biggest university in Lithuania. ... Location Ethnographic region AukÅ¡taitija County Vilnius County Municipality Vilnius city municipality Coordinates Number of elderates 20 General Information Capital of Lithuania Vilnius County Vilnius city municipality Vilnius district municipality Population 540,318 in 2005 (1st) First mentioned 1323 Granted city rights 1387 Vilna redirects here. ... Immanuel Kant (22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804), was a German philosopher from Königsberg in East Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia). ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Halle is the name of two cities in Germany, and both a municipality and a town in Belgium. ... Catherine II of Russia Catherine II of Russia, called the Great (Russian: Екатерина II Великая, Yekaterina II Velikaya; 2 May 1729–17 November 1796 [O.S. 6 November]) — sometimes referred to as an epitome of the enlightened despot — reigned as Empress of Russia for some 34 years, from June 28, 1762 until... Saint Petersburg (Russian: Санкт-Петербу́рг, English transliteration: Sankt-Peterburg), colloquially known as Питер (transliterated Piter), formerly known as Leningrad (Ленингра́д, 1924–1991) and... JÄ™drzej Åšniadecki JÄ™drzej Åšniadecki (1768 - 1838) was a Polish writer, physician, chemist and biologist. ... Mainz is a city in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. ... Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz (Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz) is a university in the city of Mainz, Germany. ... Johannes von Müller (January 3, 1752 - May 29, 1809), Swiss historian, was born at Neunkirch, near Schaffhausen, where his father was pastor. ... Friedrich Karl Joseph Reichsfreiherr von Erthal, painting by Georg Anton Abraham Urlaub, 1786 Friedrich Karl Joseph Reichsfreiherr von Erthal (1719-01-03 - 1802-07-25) was electoral prince and archbishop of the old Archbishopric of Mainz from 1774-07-18 to 1802-07-04, shortly before the end of the...

Forster regularly published essays on the scientific and discovery expeditions of his times and continued to be a very prolific translator; for instance, he wrote about Cook's third journey to the South Pacific, and about the Bounty expedition, as well as translating Cook's and Bligh's diaries from these journeys into German. From his London years, Forster was in contact with the private scholar Sir Joseph Banks, the initiator of the Bounty expedition and a participant in Cook's first journey. James Cook, portrait by Nathaniel Dance, c. ... The mutineers turning Lt Bligh and some of the officers and crew adrift from HMAV Bounty, 29 April 1789. ... Joseph Banks Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, PRS (February 13, 1743 – June 19, 1820) was an English naturalist and botanist. ...

Another field of his interest was indology (One of the main goals of his failed expedition to be financed by Catherine II had been to reach India). He translated the Sanskrit play Shakuntala using a Latin version provided by Sir William Jones: this strongly influenced Herder and triggered German interest in the culture of India.^[8] Indology is a name given by indologists to the academic study of the history, languages, and cultures of South Asia. ... The Sanskrit language ( , ) is a classical language of India, a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and one of the 22 official languages of India. ... The Recognition of Sakuntala is a play in Sanskrit written by Kalidasa. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. ... Sir William Jones Sir William Jones (September 28, 1746 – April 27, 1794) was an English philologist and student of ancient India, particularly known for his proposition of the existence of a relationship among Indo-European languages. ... Johann Gottfried Herder Johann Gottfried von Herder (August 25, 1744 – December 18, 1803), German poet, critic, theologian, and philosopher, is best known for his influence on authors such as Goethe and the role he played in the development of the larger cultural movement known as romanticism. ...

One of the entrances of Cologne cathedral, which was praised in Ansichten vom Niederrhein.

ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (1692x1476, 2244 KB) Summary Ornamented gate arch of a Cologne Cathedral entrance. ... ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (1692x1476, 2244 KB) Summary Ornamented gate arch of a Cologne Cathedral entrance. ... The Cologne Cathedral (German: Kölner Dom, official name ) is one of the best-known architectural monuments in Germany and has been Colognes most famous landmark since its completion in the late 19th century. ...

Views from the Lower Rhine

In the spring of 1790, Forster and the young Alexander von Humboldt started from Mainz on a long journey through the Southern Netherlands, Holland, and England, which eventually finished in Paris. The impressions from the journey were described in a three volume publication Ansichten vom Niederrhein, von Brabant, Flandern, Holland, England und Frankreich im April, Mai und Juni 1790 (Views of the Lower Rhine, from Brabant, Flanders, Holland, England, and France in April, May and June 1790), published 1791-1794. Goethe said about the book: "One wants, after one has finished reading, to start it over, and wishes to travel with such a good and knowledgeable observer." The book includes considerations in the field of the history of art that were as influential for the discipline as A Voyage round the world was for ethnology. Forster belongs, for example, to the first writers who gave just treatment to the Gothic architecture of Cologne Cathedral,^[5] which was widely perceived as "barbarian" at that time. An 1859 portrait of Alexander von Humboldt by the artist Julius Schrader, showing Mount Chimborazo in the background. ... The Southern Netherlands were a part of the Low Countries controlled by Spain (Spanish Netherlands, 1579-1713), Austria (Austrian Netherlands, 1713-1794) and France (1794-1815). ... Holland is a region in the central-western part of the Netherlands. ... Motto: (French for God and my right) Anthem: Multiple unofficial anthems Capital London Largest city London Official language(s) English (de facto) Unification    - by Athelstan AD 927  Area    - Total 130,395 km² (1st in UK)   50,346 sq mi  Population    - 2005 est. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Ethnology (greek ethnos: (non-greek, barbarian) people) is a genre of anthropological study, involving the systematic comparison of the folklore, beliefs and practices of different societies. ... See also Gothic art. ... The Cologne Cathedral (German: Kölner Dom, official name ) is one of the best-known architectural monuments in Germany and has been Colognes most famous landmark since its completion in the late 19th century. ...

Forster's main interest, however, was again focused on the social behaviour of people, as 15 years earlier in the Pacific. The national uprisings in Flanders and Brabant and of course the revolution in France sparked his curiosity. The journey through these regions, together with the Netherlands and England, where citizens' freedoms were equally well developed, in the end helped him to sort out his own political judgements. From that time on he started to be a confident opponent of the ancien régime. Similarly to other German scholars, he welcomed the outbreak of the revolution as a clear consequence of the Enlightenment. As early as July 30, 1789, shortly after he heard about the Storming of the Bastille, he wrote to his father-in-law, philologist Christian Gottlob Heyne that it was beautiful to see what philosophy had nurtured in people's minds and then had realized in the state. To educate people about their rights in this way, he wrote, was after all the surest way; the rest would then result as if by itself.^[18] Flanders (Dutch: ) has several main meanings: the social, cultural and linguistical, scientific and educational, economical and political community of the Flemings; some prefer to call this the Flemish community (others refer to this as the Flemish nation) which is, with over 6 million inhabitants, the majority of all Belgians; a... Brabant is a former duchy in the Low Countries, and a former province of Belgium. ... The French Revolution (1789–1799) was a pivotal period in the history of French, European and Western civilization. ... Ancien Régime, a French term meaning Former Regime, but rendered in English as Old Rule, Old Order, or simply Old Regime, refers primarily to the aristocratic social and political system established in France under the Valois and Bourbon dynasties. ... July 30 is the 211th day (212th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 154 days remaining. ... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Combatants French government Parisian militia (predecessor of Frances National Guard) Commanders Bernard-René de Launay† Prince de Lambesc Camille Desmoulins Strength 114 soldiers, 30 artillery pieces 600 - 1,000 insurgents Casualties 1 98 The Storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789 was an important symbolic development in the... Christian Gottlob Heyne Odysseus and Euryclea, by Christian G. Heyne Christian Gottlob Heyne (25 September 1729-14 July 1812) was a German classical scholar and archaeologist. ...

Liberty pole at the border to the Republic of Mainz. Watercolor by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.

Image File history File links Freiheitsbaum. ... Image File history File links Freiheitsbaum. ... The Republic of Mainz was the first democratic state on German territory. ... Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. ...

Life as a revolutionary

Foundation of the Mainz Republic

The French revolutionary army under General Custine gained control over Mainz on October 21, 1792. Two days later, Georg Forster joined others in establishing a Jacobin Club called "Freunde der Freiheit und Gleichheit" ("Friends of Freedom and Equality") in the Electoral Palace. From early 1793 he was actively involved in organizing the Mainz Republic. This first republic located on German soil was constituted on the principles of democracy, and encompassed areas on the left bank of the Rhine between Landau and Bingen. Forster became vice-president of the republic's temporary administration and a candidate in the elections to the local parliament, the Rheinisch-Deutscher Nationalkonvent (Rhenish-German National Convention). From January to March of 1793, he was an editor of Die neue Mainzer Zeitung oder Der Volksfreund (The new Mainz newspaper or The People's Friend). In his first article he wrote: Adam Philippe, Comte de Custine (February 4, 1740 – August 28, 1793), French general. ... Mainz is a city in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. ... October 21 is the 294th day of the year (295th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 71 days remaining. ... 1792 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... It has been suggested that Jacobin/Sandbox be merged into this article or section. ... The electoral palace from south The Electoral Palace in Mainz (German: ) is the former city residenz of the Archbishop of Mainz, being in personal union also Prince-elector of the electorial state within the Holy Roman Empire. ... The Republic of Mainz was the first democratic state on German territory. ... Loreley At 1,320 kilometres (820 miles) and an average discharge of more than 2,000 cubic meters per second, the Rhine (Dutch Rijn, French Rhin, German Rhein, Italian: Reno, Romansch: Rein, ) is one of the longest and most important rivers in Europe. ... Landau or Landau in der Pfalz (pop. ... Location map of Bingen am Rhein Bingen am Rhein, or Bingen, or Bingen on the Rhine is a modern-day city located at the junction of the rivers Rhine and Nahe in western Germany near the city of Mainz. ...

Die Pressefreiheit herrscht endlich innerhalb dieser Mauern, wo die Buchdruckerpresse erfunden ward.[19]

("The freedom of the press finally reigns within these walls where the printing press was invented.) The freedom did not last too long, though. The Mainz Republic existed only until the retreat of the French troops in July 1793 after the Siege of Mainz. Image File history File links Cquote1. ... Image File history File links Cquote2. ... Freedom of the press (or press freedom) is the guarantee by a government of free public press for its citizens and their associations, extended to members of news gathering organizations, and their published reporting. ... The printing press is a mechanical device for printing many copies of a text on rectangular sheets of paper. ...

Forster was not present in Mainz during the siege. As representatives of the Mainz National Convention, he and Adam Lux had been sent to Paris to apply for Mainz — which was unable to exist as an independent state — to become a part of the French Republic. The application was accepted, but had no effect, since Mainz was conquered by Prussian and Austrian troops, and the old order was restored.^[20] Adam Lux was a young Parisian; smitten with love for Charlotte Corday, proposed a statue to her with the inscription Greater than Brutus, which brought him to the guillotine. ... City flag City coat of arms Motto: Fluctuat nec mergitur (Latin: Tossed by the waves, she does not sink) Location Coordinates Time Zone CET (GMT +1) Administration Country France Région ÃŽle-de-France Département Paris (75) Subdivisions 20 arrondissements Mayor Bertrand Delanoë  (PS) (since 2001) City Statistics Land...

The Pinnacle of liberty, A satire by James Gillray

Image File history File links Gillray_Pinnacle. ... Image File history File links Gillray_Pinnacle. ... James Gillray James Gillray, sometimes spelled Gilray (born August 13, 1757 in Chelsea; died June 1, 1815) was a British caricaturist. ...

Death in revolutionary Paris

Based on a decree by Emperor Francis II inflicting punishments on German subjects who collaborated with the French revolutionary government, Forster was declared an outlaw in the name of the Emperor (under the Reichsacht), a prize of 100 ducats was set on his head and he could not return to Germany.^[5] Devoid of all means of making a living and without his wife, who had stayed in Mainz with their children and her later husband Ludwig Ferdinand Huber, he remained in Paris. At this point the revolution in Paris had entered the stage of the Reign of Terror introduced by the Committee of Public Safety under the rule of Maximilien Robespierre. Forster had the opportunity to experience the difference between the promises of the revolution of happiness for all and its cruel practice. In contrast to many other German supporters of the revolution, like for instance Friedrich Schiller, Forster did not turn back from his revolutionary ideals under the pressure of the terror regime. He viewed the events in France as a force of nature which could not be slowed down and which had to release its own energies to avoid being even more destructive.^[5] Decree is an order that has the force of law. ... Francis I in Austrian coronation regalia, 1832 Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor (German language: Franz II, Heiliger Römischer Kaiser) also referred to as Franz I, Emperor of Austria (February 12, 1768 – March 2, 1835) was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling from 1792 until August 6, 1806, when the... Reichsacht (engl. ... Ludwig Ferdinand Huber (September 14, 1764 - December 24, 1804), German author, was born in Paris, the son of Michael Huber (1727-1804), who did much to promote the study of German literature in France. ... A Phrygian cap from 1790s France, it reads: The Reign of Terror (5 September 1793 – 28 July 1794) or simply The Terror (French: la Terreur) was a period in the French Revolution characterized by brutal repression. ... The Committee of Public Safety (French: Comité de salut public), set up by the National Convention on April 6, 1793, formed the de facto executive government of France during the Reign of Terror (1793 - 1794) of the French Revolution. ... Anonymous Portrait of Maximilien Robespierre c. ... Friedrich Schiller Schiller redirects here. ...

Yet before the reign of terror reached its climax, Georg Forster died of a stroke after a rheumatic illness^[3] in his small attic apartment at Rue des Moulins^[21] in Paris in January 1794, at the age of 39. A stroke, also known as cerebrovascular accident (CVA),[1] is an acute neurologic injury in which the blood supply to a part of the brain is interrupted. ...

Views on nations and their culture

Forster had partial Scottish roots and was born in Polish Royal Prussia. He worked in Russia, England, Poland and in several German countries of his times. Finally, he finished his life in France. He worked in different milieus and travelled a lot from his youth on. It was his view that this, together with his scientific upbringing based on the principles of the Enlightenment, gave him a wide perspective on different ethnic and national communities: Map of Royal Prussia Royal Prussia (Polish: Prusy Królewskie, German: Königliches Preussen) was the western part of two parts of Prussia, which previously were governed as one Lands of the Teutonic Order. ... The Age of Enlightenment refers to either the eighteenth century in European philosophy, or the longer period including the seventeenth century and the Age of Reason. ...

Johann Reinhold Forster and Georg Forster in Tahiti, by John Francis Rigaud (1742-1810), 1780.

All peoples of the earth have equal claims to my good will..., and my praise and blame are independent of national prejudice.[22]

In his opinion all human beings have the same abilities with regard to reason, feelings and imagination, but these basic ingredients are used in different ways and in different environments, which gives rise to different cultures and civilisations. According to him it is obvious that the culture on Tierra del Fuego is at a lower level of development than the European culture, but he also admits that the conditions of life there are much more difficult and this gives people very little chance to develop a higher culture. Based on these opinions he was classified as one of the main examples of 18th century German cosmopolitanism.^[23] Image File history File links Info: Johann Reinhold Forster an Georg Forster in Tahiti Credit: J. F. Rigaud, 1780 Copyright/License: Presumed public domain under Bridgeman Art Library, LTD. vs Corel Corp File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this... Image File history File links Info: Johann Reinhold Forster an Georg Forster in Tahiti Credit: J. F. Rigaud, 1780 Copyright/License: Presumed public domain under Bridgeman Art Library, LTD. vs Corel Corp File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this... Johann Reinhold Forster Johann Reinhold Forster (October 22, 1729 - December 9, 1798) was a German naturalist of Scottish descent. ... Map of French Polynesia Map of Tahiti and Moorea Tahiti is the largest island of French Polynesia, located in the archipelago of Society Islands in the southern Pacific Ocean at . ... Image File history File links Cquote1. ... Image File history File links Cquote2. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

In contrast to the attitude expressed in these writings and to his Enlightenment background, he used insulting terms expressing prejudices against Poles in his private letters during his stay in Vilnius and in a diary from the journey through Poland,^[24][25][26] but he never published any manifestation of this attitude.^[27] These insults only became known after his death, when his private correspondence and diaries were released to the public. Since Forster's published descriptions of other nations were seen as impartial scientific observations, Forster's disparaging description of Poland in his letters and diaries was often taken at face value in Imperial and Nazi Germany, where it was used as a means of science-based support for a purported German superiority.^[28] The spreading of the "Polnische Wirtschaft" (Polish economy) stereotype^[29] is most likely due to the influence of his letters.^[30][31]

Forster's attitude brought him into conflict with people of different nations he encountered and made him welcome nowhere, as he was too revolutionary and antinational for Germans,^[32] proud and opposing in his dealings with Englishmen,^[33] too unconcerned about Polish science for Poles,^[34][31] and too insignificant politically and ignored while in France.^[35]

Heritage

After Forster's death his works were mostly forgotten, except in professional circles. This was partly due to his involvement in the French revolution. However, his reception changed with the politics of the times, with different periods focusing on different parts of his work. In the period of rising nationalism after the Napoleonic times he was regarded in Germany as a "traitor to his country", overshadowing the perception of his work as an author and scientist. This attitude rose even though the philosopher Friedrich Schlegel wrote about Forster at the beginning of 19th century: Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel (March 10, 1772 - January 11, 1829), German poet, critic and scholar, was the younger brother of August Wilhelm von Schlegel. ...

Among all those authors of prose who are justified in laying claims to a place in the ranks of German classics, none breathes the spirit of free progress more than Georg Forster.[36]

Some interest in Forster's life and revolutionary actions was revived in the context of the liberal sentiments leading up to the 1848 revolution.^[5] Image File history File links Cquote1. ... Image File history File links Cquote2. ... // Germany at the time of the Revolutions of 1848 was a collection of 38 states including Austria loosely bound together in the German Confederation after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. ...

Remembering Forster was ostracised in the Germany of Wilhelm II and more so in the Third Reich,^[37] where interest in Forster was limited to his stance on Poland from his private letters. Later, the GDR, in turn, tried to profit from his memory by connecting him to its tradition as a scientist and revolutionary. For instance, the GDR research station in Antarctica that was opened on 1987-10-25 was named after Forster.^[38] In West Germany, the search for democratic traditions in German history also lead to a more diversified picture of him in the 1970s. A scholarship program of the Alexander von Humboldt foundation for foreign scholars from developing countries is named after him.^[39] His reputation as one of first and most outstanding German ethnologists is indisputable, and his works are seen as crucial in the development of ethnology in Germany into a separate branch of science.^[40] German Emperor Wilhelm (born Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albrecht, Prince of Prussia 27 January 1859–4 June 1941), was the last German Emperor and King of Prussia (de: Deutscher Kaiser und König von Preußen), ruling from 15 June 1888 to 9 November 1918. ... Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ... GDR redirects here. ... 1987 (MCMLXXXVII) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 25 is the 298th day of the year (299th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Ethnology (greek ethnos: (non-greek, barbarian) people) is a genre of anthropological study, involving the systematic comparison of the folklore, beliefs and practices of different societies. ...

Works

• A Voyage round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years, 1772, 3, 4, and 5 (1777)
• Journal of travels in Poland (August-November, 1784), The Warsaw Voice, 1990 31 8-9
• Dissertatio botanico-medica de plantis esculentis insularum oceani Australis (1785)
• Essays on the moral and natural geography, natural history and phylosophy (1789-1797)
• Views of the Lower Rhine, Brabant, Flanders (three volumes, 1791-1794)
• Letters (posthumous compilation of his correspondence, 1828)
• Werke in vier Bänden, Gerhard Steiner (editor). Leipzig 1971
• Ansichten vom Niederrhein, Gerhard Steiner (editor). Frankfurt am Main: Insel, 1989. ISBN 3-458-32836-X
• Reise um die Welt, Gerhard Steiner (editor). Frankfurt am Main: Insel, 1983. ISBN 3-458-32457-7
• Über die Beziehung der Staatskunst auf das Glück der Menschheit und andere Schriften, Wolfgang Rödel (editor). Frankfurt am Main: Insel, 1966. – A little collection of political essays, notes, and speeches of republican thinkers and writers.
• Georg Forsters Werke, Sämtliche Schriften, Tagebücher, Briefe, Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, G. Steiner et al. Berlin: Akademie 1958
• Georg Forster, Revolutions-Briefe, Kurt Kersten, Athenaeum Verlag, 1981

This is a list of botanists by their author abbreviation, designed for citation in the botanical names they have published. ... In botanical nomenclature, author citation refers to the person (or team) who valid published the name, i. ... A botanical name is a formal name conforming to the ICBN. As with its zoological and bacterial equivalents it may also be called a scientific name. Botanical names may be in one part (genus and above), two parts (species) or three parts (below the rank of species). ...

References

This article is partly based on a translation of the German Wikipedia article Georg Forster. November 26 is the 330th day (331st on leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Baptism in early Christian art. ... Gdańsk (IPA: ; German: , Kashubian: , Late Latin: ; older English Dantzig; also other languages) is the sixth-largest city in Poland, and also its principal seaport and the capital of the Pomeranian Voivodeship. ... November 27 is the 331st day (332nd on leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... December 5 is the 339th day (340th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... JSTOR®, begun in 1995, is an online system for archiving academic journals. ... Die Zeit (pronounced ) is a German nationwide weekly newspaper (literally translated: Time). ... The Süddeutsche Zeitung is a leading German quality newspaper. ... 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... March 17 is the 76th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (77th in Leap years). ... German Wikipedia is the German-language edition of Wikipedia, a free and publicly editable online encyclopedia. ...

External links

• The Forster Collection at the Pitt Rivers Museum
• The Forster herbarium at Göttingen
• (German) Georg Forster society in Kassel
• Letter recommending Georg Forster to the Royal Society
• (German) Edition of Forster's works at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of the Sciences
• Drawing of a Chinstrap Penguin by Georg Forster
• Biography at the Australian Dictionary of Biography

   

The premises of the Royal Society in London (first four properties only). ... Binomial name Pygoscelis antarctica (Forster, 1781) The Chinstrap Penguin (Pygoscelis antarctica) is a species of penguin which is found in the South Sandwich Islands, Antarctica, the South Orkneys, South Shetland, South Georgia, Bouvet Island, Balleny and Peter I Island. ... The Dictionary of Australian Biography is a reference work containing information on notable people associated with Australian history. ... Image File history File links LinkFA-star. ... -1... Ethnologyis a genre of cultural anthropology and| anthropological study, involving the systematic comparison of the beliefs and practices of different societies. ... 1754 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... GdaÅ„sk (IPA: ; German: , Kashubian: , Late Latin: ; older English Dantzig; also other languages) is the sixth-largest city in Poland, and also its principal seaport and the capital of the Pomeranian Voivodeship. ... Map of Royal Prussia Royal Prussia (Polish: Prusy Królewskie, German: Königliches Preussen) was the western part of two parts of Prussia, which previously were governed as one Lands of the Teutonic Order. ... January 10 is the 10th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1794 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... City flag City coat of arms Motto: Fluctuat nec mergitur (Latin: Tossed by the waves, she does not sink) Location Coordinates Time Zone CET (GMT +1) Administration Country France Région ÃŽle-de-France Département Paris (75) Subdivisions 20 arrondissements Mayor Bertrand Delanoë  (PS) (since 2001) City Statistics Land...