George Stephenson

George Stephenson

George Stephenson (9 June 1781 – 12 August 1848) was an English mechanical engineer who built the first public railway line in the world to use steam locomotives and is known as the "Father of Railways". The Victorians considered him a great example of diligent application and thirst for improvement, with self-help advocate Samuel Smiles particularly praising his achievements. His rail gauge of 4 ft 8½ in (1435 mm), sometimes called "Stephenson gauge", is the world's standard gauge. Image File history File links Unbalanced_scales. ... Shortcut: WP:NPOVD Articles that have been linked to this page are the subject of an NPOV dispute (NPOV stands for Neutral Point Of View; see below). ... From [1], in the public domain This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... From [1], in the public domain This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Image File history File links George_Stephenson_-_Project_Gutenberg_etext_13103. ... Image File history File links George_Stephenson_-_Project_Gutenberg_etext_13103. ... For other uses, see George Stevenson (disambiguation). ... June 9 is the 160th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (161st in leap years), with 205 days remaining. ... 1781 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... is the 224th day of the year (225th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1848 (MDCCCXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Monday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... For other uses, see England (disambiguation). ... Mechanical Engineering is an engineering discipline that involves the application of principles of physics for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. ... // The term steam engine may also refer to an entire railroad steam locomotive. ... Great Western Railway No. ... Queen Victoria (shown here on the morning of her accession to the Throne, 20 June 1837) gave her name to the historic era The Victorian era of the United Kingdom marked the height of the British Industrial Revolution and the apex of the British Empire. ... Though the term self-help can refer to any case whereby an individual or a group betters themselves economically, intellectually or emotionally, the connotations of the phrase have come to apply particularly to psychological or psychotherapeutic nostrums, often purveyed through the popular genre of the self-help book. ... Samuel Smiles (December 23, 1812 – April 16, 1904), was a Scottish author and reformer. ... The dominant rail gauge in each country shown Rail gauge is the distance between the inner sides of the two parallel rails that make up a railway track. ... As railways developed and expanded one of the key issues to be decided was that of the rail gauge (the distance between the two rails of the track) which should be used. ...

Early life

George Stephenson was born in Wylam, Northumberland, 9.3 miles west of Newcastle upon Tyne. He was the second child of Robert and Mabel, neither of whom could read or write. Robert was the fireman for Wylam Colliery pumping engine, earning a low wage, so that there was no money for schooling. At 17, Stephenson became an engineman at a local colliery. George realised the value of education and paid to study at night school to learn reading, writing and arithmetic. In 1801 he began work at Black Callerton colliery as a ‘brakesman’, controlling the winding gear of the pit. In 1802 he married Frances (Fanny) Henderson and moved to Willington Quay, east of Newcastle. There he worked as a brakesman while they lived in one room of a cottage. George made shoes and mended clocks to supplement his income. In 1803 their son Robert was born, and in 1804 they moved to West Moor, near Killingworth while George worked as a brakesman at Killingworth pit. His wife gave birth to a daughter, who died after a few weeks, and in 1806 Fanny died of consumption. George, then decided to find work in Scotland, and he left Robert with a local woman while he went to work in Montrose. After a few months he returned, probably because his father was blinded in a mining accident. George moved back into his cottage at West Moor and his unmarried sister Eleanor moved in to look after Robert. In 1811 the pumping engine at High Pit, Killingworth was not working properly and Stephenson offered to fix it. He did so with such success that he was soon promoted to enginewright for the neighbouring collieries at Killingworth, responsible to maintaining and repairing all of the colliery engines. He soon became an expert in steam-driven machinery.^[1] Wylam (IPA pronunciation: ) is a small village approximately 10 miles (16 kilometers) west of Newcastle upon Tyne. ... Northumberland is a county in the North East of England. ... This article is about a city in the United Kingdom. ... Statue of Robert Stephenson at Euston Station, London Robert Stephenson FRS (October 16, 1803–October 12, 1859) was an English civil engineer. ... West Moor is a place in North Tyneside. ... , Killingworth, formerly Killingworth Township, is a town north of Newcastle Upon Tyne, in North Tyneside, United Kingdom. ... , Montrose is a port, tourist resort and royal burgh in Angus, on the east coast of Scotland. ...

Statue of George Stephenson at the National Railway Museum, York

Image File history File links Download high resolution version (427x951, 235 KB) Summary George Stephenson statue at the National Railway Museum in York Photo by and copyright Tagishsimon Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: George Stephenson User:Tagishsimon/Gallery - 2005 photos 1 ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (427x951, 235 KB) Summary George Stephenson statue at the National Railway Museum in York Photo by and copyright Tagishsimon Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: George Stephenson User:Tagishsimon/Gallery - 2005 photos 1 ... Locomotives arranged around the turntable in the Great Hall. ... York shown within England Coordinates: , Sovereign state Constituent country Region Yorkshire and the Humber Ceremonial county North Yorkshire Admin HQ York City Centre Founded 71 City Status 71 Government  - Type Unitary Authority, City  - Governing body City of York Council  - Leadership: Leader & Executive  - Executive: Liberal Democrat  - MPs: Hugh Bayley (L) John...

The miners' safety lamp

In 1818, aware of the explosions often caused in mines by naked flames, Stephenson began to experiment with a safety lamp that would burn without causing an explosion. At the same time, Sir Humphry Davy, the eminent scientist was looking at the problem himself. Despite his lack of any scientific knowledge, Stephenson, by trial and error, devised a lamp in which the air entered via tiny holes. Stephenson demonstrated the lamp himself to two witnesses by taking it down Killingworth colliery and holding it directly in front of a fissure from which fire damp was issuing. This was a month before Davy presented his design to the Royal Society. The two designs differed in that, the Davy’s lamp was surrounded by a screen of gauze, whereas Stephenson’s lamp was contained in a glass cylinder. For his invention Davy was awarded £2,000, whilst Stephenson was accused of stealing the idea from Davy. A local committee of enquiry exonerated Stephenson, proved that he had been working separately and awarded him £1,000 but Davy and his supporters refused to accept this. They could not see how an uneducated man such as Stephenson could come up with the solution that he had. In 1833 a House of Commons committee found that Stephenson had equal claim to having invented the safety lamp. Davy went to his grave believing that Stephenson had stolen his idea. The Stephenson lamp was used exclusively in the North East, whereas the Davy lamp was used everywhere else. The experience with Davy gave Stephenson a life-long distrust of London-based, theoretical, scientific experts.^[1] Safety lamp is the name of a variety of lamps for safety in coal-mines against coal dust, methane, or firedamp, a highly explosive mixture of natural gas apt to accumulate in them. ... Sir Humphry Davy, 1st Baronet, FRS (17 December 1778 – 29 May 1829) was a British chemist and physicist. ... Fire-damp is composed chiefly of methane with varying percentages of other gases. ... For other uses, see Royal Society (disambiguation). ... Type Lower House Speaker of the House of Commons Leader of the House of Commons Michael Martin, (Non-affiliated) since October 23, 2000 Harriet Harman, QC, (Labour) since June 28, 2007 Shadow Leader of the House of Commons Theresa May, PC, (Conservative) since December 6, 2005 Members 646 Political groups...

Early locomotives

Richard Trevithick is credited with building the first locomotive in 1804. Later, he visited Tyneside and built an engine there for a mine-owner. Several local men were inspired by this, and designed engines of their own. Richard Trevithick Richard Trevithick (April 13, 1771 – April 22, 1833) was a British inventor, engineer and builder of the first working railway steam locomotive. ...

Stephenson designed his first locomotive in 1814, a travelling engine designed for hauling coal on the Killingworth wagonway, and named Blücher after the Prussian general Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher. This locomotive could haul 30 tons of coal, and was the first successful flanged-wheel adhesion locomotive: its traction depended only on the contact between its flanged wheels and the rail. Altogether, Stephenson produced 16 locomotives at Killingworth.^[1] A 19th Century engraving of the Blucher This article is about the locomotive Blücher. See also Blücher Blücher was an early railway locomotive built in 1814 by George Stephenson for Killingworth Colliery. ... For other uses, see Prussia (disambiguation). ... Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher. ...

A problem with the new engines was that they could not be run on wooden rails, for which they were too heavy. Iron rails, however, were in their infancy, with cast iron exhibiting excessive brittleness. Nevertheless, together with William Losh, Stephenson was able to improve the design of cast iron rails such that they did not break so easily. Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but can mean any of a group of iron-based alloys containing more than 2% carbon (alloys with less carbon are carbon steel by definition). ... William Losh (1770- – 1861) was a chemist and industrialist who is credited with introducing the Leblanc process for the manufacture of alkali to the United Kingdom. ...

As his success grew, Stephenson was hired to build an 8-mile (13-km) railway from Hetton colliery to Sunderland in 1820. The finished result used a combination of gravity on downward inclines and locomotives for level and upward stretches. It was the first railway to use no animal power at all. The Hetton colliery railway was a private railway opened in 1822 by the Hetton Coal Company at Hetton Lyons, County Durham. ... The City of Sunderland is a metropolitan borough in the metropolitan county of Tyne and Wear in North East England. ...

Stockton and Darlington Railway

In 1821, a parliamentary bill was passed to allow the building of the Stockton and Darlington Railway (S&DR). The 25 mile railway was intended to connect various collieries situated near Bishop Auckland to the River Tees at Stockton, passing through Darlington on the way. The original plan was to use horses to draw coal carts on metal rails, but after company director Edward Pease met Stephenson he agreed to change the plans. Stephenson surveyed the line in 1821, assisted by his eighteen-year-old son Robert. That same year construction of the line began.^[1] Opening of the Stockton and Darlington Railway by John Dobbin, circa 1825. ... Statistics Population: 24,392 (2001) [1] Ordnance Survey OS grid reference: NZ208294 Administration District: Wear Valley Shire county: County Durham Region: North East England Constituent country: England Sovereign state: United Kingdom Other Ceremonial county: County Durham Historic county: County Durham Services Police force: Durham Constabulary Fire and rescue: {{{Fire}}} Ambulance... The Tees is a river in Northern England. ... Stockton-on-Tees is an industrial town and port on the River Tees in north-eastern England. ... This article is about the town in England. ... Edward Pease (31 May 1767 - 31 July 1858) was an English railway owner. ...

A manufacturer was now needed to provide the locomotives for the new line. As it turned out, Pease and Stephenson jointly established a company in Newcastle to manufacture locomotives. The company was set up as Robert Stephenson and Company, and George’s son Robert was the managing director. A fourth partner was Michael Longridge of Bedlington Ironworks. In September 1825 the works at Forth Street, Newcastle completed the first locomotive for the new railway: originally named Active, it was soon renamed Locomotion. It was followed by “Hope”, “Diligence” and “Black Diamond”. The Stockton and Darlington Railway opened on 27 September 1825. Driven by Stephenson, Locomotion hauled an 80-ton load of coal and flour nine miles (15 km) in two hours, reaching a speed of 24 miles per hour (39 km/h) on one stretch. The first purpose-built passenger car, dubbed Experiment, was attached, and carried dignitaries on the opening journey. It was the first time passenger traffic had been run on a steam locomotive railway.^[1] Robert Stephenson and Company was set up in 1823 in Forth Street, Newcastle-upon-Tyne in England by George Stephenson, his son Robert, with Edward Pease and Michael Longridge (the owner of the ironworks at Bedlington ). It was the first company set up specifically to build railway engines, as part... Bedlington Ironworks, in Blyth Dene, Northumberland, England, operated between 1736 and 1867. ... Locomotion No. ... is the 270th day of the year (271st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1825 (MDCCCXXV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ...

The rails used for the new line were wrought-iron ones, produced at the Bedlington Ironworks. Wrought-iron rails could be produced in much longer lengths than the cast-iron ones and were much less liable to crack under the weight of heavy locomotives. William Losh of Walker Ironworks had thought that he had an agreement with Stephenson to use his cast-iron rails, and Stephenson's decision caused a permanent rift between the two men. The gauge that Stephenson chose for the line was 4 ft 8½ in (1435 mm), and this subsequently came to be adopted as the standard gauge for railways, not only in Britain, but also throughout the world.^[1] Bedlington Ironworks, in Blyth Dene, Northumberland, England, operated between 1736 and 1867. ... William Losh (1770- – 1861) was a chemist and industrialist who is credited with introducing the Leblanc process for the manufacture of alkali to the United Kingdom. ...

Liverpool and Manchester Railway

While building the Stockton and Darlington Railway, Stephenson had noticed that even small inclines greatly reduced the speed of locomotives (and even slight declines would have made the primitive brakes next to useless). He came to the conclusion that railways should be kept as level as possible. He used this knowledge while working on the Bolton and Leigh Railway, and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway (L&MR), executing a series of difficult cuts, embankments and stone viaducts to smooth the route the railways took. Defective surveying of the original route of the L&MR caused by the hostility of some of the affected landowners meant that Stephenson was given a very bad time during Parliamentary scrutiny of the original bill, especially under cross-examination by Edward Hall Alderson. The Bill was rejected. A revised bill with a new alignment was submitted and passed in a subsequent session. The revised alignment presented a considerable problem: the crossing of Chat Moss, an apparently bottomless peat bog, which Stephenson eventually overcame by unusual means, effectively floating the line across it.^[1] Bolton and Leigh was an early railway company that acted as a feeder to the original Liverpool and Manchester Railway. ... Inaugural journey of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway The Liverpool and Manchester Railway (L&MR) was the worlds first intercity passenger railway in which all the trains were timetabled and operated for most of the distance solely by steam locomotives. ... In law, cross-examination is the interrogation of a witness called by ones opponent. ... Baron Alderson Sir Edward Hall Alderson (baptised 10 September 1787 - 27 January 1857) was an English lawyer and judge whose many judgments on commercial law helped to shape the emerging British capitalism of the Victorian era. ... Chat Moss is a large peat bog in Lancashire, England. ...

As the L&MR approached completion in 1829, its directors arranged for a competition to decide who would build its locomotives, and the Rainhill Trials were run in October of that year. Entries could weigh no more than six tons and had to travel up and down the track for a total distance of 60 miles. Stephenson's entry was Rocket, and its impressive performance in winning the contest made it arguably the most famous locomotive in the world. George’s son Robert had been working in South America from 1824 to 1827 and had returned to run the Forth Street Works while George was living in Liverpool and overseeing the construction of the new line. Robert was very much responsible for the detailed design of Rocket, although he was in constant postal communication with George, who made many suggestions on the design. One significant innovation was the use of a boiler with a number of tubes to give improved heat exchange. This was suggested by Henry Booth, the treasurer of the L&MR.^[1] The Rainhill Trials were an important competition in the early days of steam locomotive railways, run in October of 1829 near Rainhill (just outside Liverpool). ... A contemporary drawing of Rocket Rocket as preserved in the Science Museum, London. ... For other uses, see Liverpool (disambiguation). ... Henry Booth was born 4 April 1788 died 1869, on Rodney Street, Liverpool, England. ...

The opening ceremony of the L&MR, on 15 September 1830, was a considerable event, drawing luminaries from the government and industry, including the Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington. The day started with a procession of eight trains setting out from Liverpool. The parade was led by “Northumbrian” driven by George Stephenson, and included “Phoenix” driven by his son Robert, “North Star” driven by his brother Robert and “Rocket” driven by assistant engineer Joseph Locke. The day was marred by the death of William Huskisson, the Member of Parliament for Liverpool, who was struck and killed by Rocket, but the railway was a resounding success. Stephenson became a very famous man, and was offered the position of chief engineer for a wide variety of other railways.^[1] is the 258th day of the year (259th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix commemorates the July Revolution 1830 (MDCCCXXX) was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS (c. ... Joseph Locke, railway engineer Joseph Locke (9 August 1805- 18 September 1860) was a notable British civil engineer of the 19th century, particularly associated with railway projects. ... William Huskisson (11 March 1770 - 15 September 1830), was a British statesman, financier, and Member of Parliament for Liverpool. ... A Member of Parliament, or MP, is a representative elected by the voters to a parliament. ... For other uses, see Liverpool (disambiguation). ...

Later career

The next ten years were the busiest of Stephenson’s life, as he was besieged with requests from railway promoters. However, he did not have things all his own way. Other talented men were starting to make their marks, such as his own son Robert, his pupil Joseph Locke and finally Isambard Kingdom Brunel. His conservative views on the capabilities of locomotives meant that he tended to favour circuitous routes and civil engineering that were more costly than his successors thought necessary. For example, rather than the West Coast Main Line taking the direct route favoured by Joseph Locke over Shap between Lancaster and Carlisle, Stephenson was in favour of a longer sea-level route via Ulverston and Whitehaven. Locke's route was the one built. Stephenson also tended to be more casual in estimating costs and paperwork in general. He worked with Joseph Locke on the Grand Junction Railway with one half of the line allocated to each man. Stephenson’s estimates proved to be inferior to those of Locke and the board’s impatience led to Stephenson’s resignation. This caused a rift between Stephenson and Locke, which was never healed.^[1] Isambard Kingdom Brunel, FRS (9 April 1806 – 15 September 1859) (IPA: ), was a British engineer. ... The WCML running alongside the M1 motorway at Watford Gap in Northamptonshire A Virgin Pendolino and freight train on the WCML The West Coast Main Line (WCML) is one of the most important intercity railway lines in the United Kingdom, part of the British railway system. ... Joseph Locke, railway engineer Joseph Locke (9 August 1805- 18 September 1860) was a notable British civil engineer of the 19th century, particularly associated with railway projects. ... The Lancaster and Carlisle Railway (L&CR) was a British railway company authorised on 6 June 1844 to build a line between Lancaster and Carlisle in NW England. ... Logo The City of Lancaster (2002 population: 133,914) is a local government district with city status in Lancashire, England. ... , Carlisle is a city in the far north-west of England, and is the largest urban area in Cumbria. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Despite the fact that Stephenson lost some routes to competitors due to his cautious ideas, he was still offered more work than he could cope with. He was unable to turn down any offer for more work. He worked on the North Midlands line from Derby to Leeds, the North Midlands line from Normanton to York, the Manchester and Leeds, the Birmingham and Derby, the Sheffield and Rotherham among many others.^[1] The North Midland Railway was a British railway company, which opened its line from Derby to Rotherham (Masborough) and Leeds in 1840. ... The Manchester and Leeds Railway (M&LR) was the chief constituent of the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway, which was incorporated in 1847. ... The Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway was a British railway company. ... In the early nineteenth century, when news broke of the building of the North Midland Railway, it was clear that George Stephenson would follow the gentle gradient of the Rivers Rother and Don, bypassing Sheffield. ...

Stephenson therefore tended to become a reassuring name, rather than a cutting-edge technical adviser. He was the first president of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers on its formation in 1847. He had by this time settled into semi-retirement, supervising his mining interests in Derbyshire - tunnelling work for the North Midland Railway had revealed unworked coal seams, and Stephenson put much of his money into their exploitation. Logo The Institution of Mechanical Engineers (IMechE) is the British engineering society concerned with mechanical engineering. ... The North Midland Railway was a British railway company, which opened its line from Derby to Rotherham (Masborough) and Leeds in 1840. ...

Private life

Stephenson’s first wife, Fanny died in 1806, and his only son, Robert was brought up by George and his unmarried sister Eleanor. In 1820, George married Elizabeth Hindmarsh, a farmer’s daughter whom George had wanted to marry when he was young, but was not considered good enough for her. George and Elizabeth (Betty) had no children, and she died in 1845. In 1848 George married for the third time, to Ellen Gregory who had been his housekeeper. Six months after his wedding, George contracted pleurisy and died, aged 67, on 12 August 1848 at Tapton House in Chesterfield, Derbyshire. He was buried at Holy Trinity Church, Chesterfield, alongside his second wife.^[1] is the 224th day of the year (225th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1848 (MDCCCXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Monday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Tapton House is situated in Chesterfield, North Derbyshire, England. ... This article is about the English town. ... Derbyshire is a county in the East Midlands of England. ...

Legacy

Britain led the world in the development of railways and this in turn acted as a stimulus to the industrial revolution, by making easier the transport of raw materials and manufactured goods. George Stephenson cannot claim to have invented the locomotive. Richard Trevithick, deserves that credit. However, George Stephenson, with his work on the Stockton and Darlington Railway and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, paved the way for the railway engineers who were to follow, such as his son Robert, his assistant Joseph Locke who went on to carry out much work on his own account and the charismatic Isambard Kingdom Brunel. All of these men, whatever feats they achieved, were following in his footsteps. Stephenson was also very farsighted in realising that the individual railway lines being built, would eventually join up, and would therefore need to have the same gauge. The standard gauge used throughout the world is due to him. Richard Trevithick Richard Trevithick (April 13, 1771 – April 22, 1833) was a British inventor, engineer and builder of the first working railway steam locomotive. ... Statue of Robert Stephenson at Euston Station, London Robert Stephenson FRS (October 16, 1803–October 12, 1859) was an English civil engineer. ... Joseph Locke, railway engineer Joseph Locke (9 August 1805- 18 September 1860) was a notable British civil engineer of the 19th century, particularly associated with railway projects. ... Isambard Kingdom Brunel, FRS (9 April 1806 – 15 September 1859) (IPA: ), was a British engineer. ...

Stephenson memorabilia

The museum in Chesterfield, England has a room full of Stephenson memorabilia, including the straight thick glass tubes in which he (inventive to the last) grew his cucumbers to stop them curving. George Stephenson College, founded in 2001 on the University of Durham's Queen's Campus in Stockton-on-Tees, is named after him. Also named after him and his son is George Stephenson High School in Killingworth, the Stephenson Railway Museum in North Shields and the Stephenson Locomotive Society. This article is about the English town. ... George Stephenson College is a college of the University of Durham in England, and one of two located at Queens Campus in Stockton-on-Tees, 37 km (23 miles) south of the city of Durham itself. ... Affiliations 1994 Group European University Association Association of MBAs EQUIS Universities UK N8 Group Association of Commonwealth Universities Website http://www. ... Stockton-on-Tees is an industrial town and port on the River Tees in north-eastern England. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... The Stephenson Railway Museum [SRM] was opened in 1986 to house the railway collections of Tyne & Wear Museums. ... North Shields (or locally just Shields) is a town on the north bank of the River Tyne, in the metropolitan borough of North Tyneside, in North East England. ... The Stephenson Locomotive Society was founded in the UK in Autumn 1909 for the study of rail transport and locomotives. ...

As a tribute to his life and works, a bronze statue of Stephenson was unveiled at Chesterfield railway station (which is overlooked by Tapton House, where Stephenson spent the last ten years of his life) on 28 October 2005, marking the completion of improvements to the station. At the event a full-size working replica of Rocket was on show, which then spent two days on public display at the Chesterfield Market Festival. Chesterfield railway station is a medium-sized railway station, 12 miles (20km) south of Sheffield Midland station and to the east of Chesterfield, Derbyshire, town centre. ... Tapton House is situated in Chesterfield, North Derbyshire, England. ... is the 301st day of the year (302nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Stephenson's portrait appeared on Bank of England £5 notes between 1990 and 2003. Headquarters Coordinates , , Governor Mervyn King Central Bank of United Kingdom Currency Pound sterling ISO 4217 Code GBP Base borrowing rate 5. ...

See also

• History of Science and Technology
• Industrial Revolution
• Train

The history of science and technology (HST) is a field of history which examines how humanitys understanding of science and technology has changed over the millennia. ... A Watt steam engine, the steam engine that propelled the Industrial Revolution in Britain and the world. ... For other uses, see Train (disambiguation). ...

References

Biographical works

• Smiles, Samuel (1857). The Life of George Stephenson. 
• Davies, Hunter (2004). George Stephenson: The Remarkable Life of the Founder of Railways. Stroud: Sutton Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7509-3795-5. 
• Rolt, L.T.C. (1960). George and Robert Stephenson: The Railway Revolution. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-007646-2. 

Samuel Smiles (December 23, 1812 – April 16, 1904), was a Scottish author and reformer. ... Lionel Thomas Caswell Rolt (usually abbreviated to Tom Rolt or L.T.C. Rolt) (1910-1974) was a prolific English writer and the biographer of major civil engineering figures including Isambard Kingdom Brunel and Thomas Telford. ...

External links

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