Glycolysis is the sequence of reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate with the concomitant production of a relatively small amount of ATP. The word is derived from Greek γλυκύς (sweet) and λύσις (letting loose).

It is the initial process of most carbohydrate catabolism, and it serves three principal functions: Lactose is a disaccharide found in milk. ... Anabolism is the aspect of metabolism that contributes to growth. ...

1. The generation of high-energy molecules (ATP and NADH) as cellular energy sources as part of aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration, that is, in the former process, oxygen is present, and, in the latter, oxygen is not present
2. Production of pyruvate for the citric acid cycle as part of aerobic respiration
3. The production of a variety of six- and three-carbon intermediate compounds, which may be removed at various steps in the process for other cellular purposes.

As the foundation of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration, glycolysis is the archetype of universal metabolic processes known and occurring (with variations) in many types of cells in nearly all organisms. Glycolysis, through anaerobic respiration, is the main energy source in many prokaryotes, eukaryotic cells devoid of mitochondria (e.g., mature erythrocytes) and eukaryotic cells under low-oxygen conditions (e.g., heavily-exercising muscle or fermenting yeast). Adenosine 5-triphosphate (ATP) is a multifunctional nucleotide that is most important as a molecular currency of intracellular energy transfer. ... Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) are two important coenzymes found in cells. ... This article or section should be merged with aerobic metabolism. ... Anaerobic respiration refers to the oxidation of molecules in the absence of oxygen to produce energy, in opposition to Aerobic respiration which does use oxygen. ... Pyruvate (CH3COCOO−) is the ionized form of pyruvic acid. ... Overview of the citric acid cycle The citric acid cycle (also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle, the TCA cycle, or the Krebs cycle, after Hans Adolf Krebs who identified the cycle) is a series of chemical reactions of central importance in all living cells that use oxygen as part... This article or section should be merged with aerobic metabolism. ... This article or section should be merged with aerobic metabolism. ... Anaerobic respiration refers to the oxidation of molecules in the absence of oxygen to produce energy, in opposition to Aerobic respiration which does use oxygen. ... Structure of the coenzyme adenosine triphosphate, a central intermediate in energy metabolism. ... Drawing of the structure of cork as it appeared under the microscope to Robert Hooke from Micrographia which is the origin of the word cell being used to describe the smallest unit of a living organism Cells in culture, stained for keratin (red) and DNA (green) The cell is the... Prokaryotes are unicellular (in rare cases, multicellular) organisms without a nucleus. ... Kingdoms Eukaryotes are organisms with complex cells, in which the genetic material is organized into membrane-bound nuclei. ... In cell biology, a mitochondrion is an organelle found in the cells of most eukaryotes. ... Human red blood cells Red blood cells are the most common type of blood cell and are the vertebrate bodys principal means of delivering oxygen to body tissues via the blood. ... General Name, symbol, number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series nonmetals, chalcogens Group, period, block 16, 2, p Appearance colourless (gas) colourless (liquid) Standard atomic weight 15. ... Typical divisions Ascomycota (sac fungi) Saccharomycotina (true yeasts) Taphrinomycotina Schizosaccharomycetes (fission yeasts) Basidiomycota (club fungi) Urediniomycetes Sporidiales Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with approximately 1,500 species described. ...

In eukaryotes and prokaryotes, glycolysis takes place within the cytosol of the cell. In plant cells, some of the glycolytic reactions are also found in the Calvin-Benson cycle, which functions inside the chloroplasts. The wide conservation includes the most phylogenetically deep-rooted extant organisms, and thus it is considered to be one of the most ancient metabolic pathways.^[1] Kingdoms Animalia - Animals Fungi Plantae - Plants Chromalveolata Protista Alternative phylogeny Unikonta Opisthokonta Metazoa Choanozoa Eumycota Amoebozoa Bikonta Apusozoa Cabozoa Rhizaria Excavata Corticata Archaeplastida Chromalveolata Animals, plants, fungi, and protists are eukaryotes (IPA: ), organisms whose cells are organized into complex structures by internal membranes and a cytoskeleton. ... Prokaryotes are unicellular (in rare cases, multicellular) organisms without a nucleus. ... The cytosol (cf. ... The Calvin cycle (also known as Calvin-Benson cycle) is a series of biochemical reactions taking place in the chloroplasts of photosynthetic organisms. ... Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and eukaryotic algae that conduct photosynthesis. ...

The most common and well-known type of glycolysis is the Embden-Meyerhof pathway, initially explained by Gustav Embden and Otto Meyerhof. The term can be taken to include alternative pathways, such as the Entner-Doudoroff Pathway. However, glycolysis will be used here as a synonym for the Embden-Meyerhof pathway. Gustav Georg Embden (born November 10th, 1874; died July 25th, 1933) was a German chemist who conducted studies on carbohydrate metabolism and muscle contraction, and the first to discover and link together all the steps involved in the conversion of glycogen to lactic acid. ... A series of reactions that catabolize glucose to pyruvic acid using a different set of enzymes from those used in either glycolysis or the pentose phosphate pathway. ...

Overview

The overall reaction of glycolysis is:

D-Glucose				Pyruvate
	+ 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi		2		+ 2 NADH + 2 H+ + 2 ATP + 2 H2O

Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... Pyruvate (CH3COCOO−) is the ionized form of pyruvic acid. ... Image File history File links D-glucose_wpmp. ... Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+ or in older notation DPN+) is an important coenzyme found in cells. ... Adenosine diphosphate, abbreviated ADP, is a nucleotide. ... A phosphate, in inorganic chemistry, is a salt of phosphoric acid. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_foward_NNNN_horiz_med. ... Image File history File links Pyruvate_wpmp. ... Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) are two important coenzymes found in cells. ... Adenosine 5-triphosphate (ATP) is a multifunctional nucleotide that is most important as a molecular currency of intracellular energy transfer. ...

v • d • e  Glycolysis Metabolic Pathway

Glucose Hexokinase Glucose-6-phosphate Phosphoglucoisomerase Fructose 6-phosphate Phosphofructokinase Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Fructose bisphosphate aldolase Dihydroxyacetone phosphate Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Triosephosphate isomerase Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate Glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase ATP ADP ATP ADP NAD+ + Pi NADH + H+ + 2 NAD+ + Pi NADH + H+ 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate Phosphoglycerate kinase 3-Phosphoglycerate Phosphoglycerate mutase 2-Phosphoglycerate Enolase Phosphoenolpyruvate Pyruvate kinase Pyruvate Pyruvate dehydrogenase Acetyl-CoA ADP ATP H2O ADP ATP CoA + NAD+ NADH + H+ + CO2 2 2 2 2 2 2 ADP ATP H2O

The products all have vital cellular uses: In biochemistry, a metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... A hexokinase is an enzyme that phosphorylates a six-carbon sugar, a hexose, to a hexose phosphate. ... Glucose 6-phosphate is glucose sugar phosphorylated on carbon 6. ... Symbol(s): GPI Genetic data Locus: Chr. ... Fructosephosphates are sugar phosphates based upon fructose. ... Phosphofructokinase (PFK) is the most important regulatory enzyme (EC 2. ... Fructosephosphates are sugar phosphates based upon fructose. ... Aldolase is an enzyme which catalyses the aldol reaction: The substrate, fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (F-1,6-BP) is broken down into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP). ... DHAP (or Dihydroxyacetonephosphate) is a biochemical compound involved in many reactions, from the Calvin Cycle in plants to the ether-lipid biosynthesis process in Leishmania mexicana. ... G3P (structure) Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) is an intermediate in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. ... Triose-phosphate isomerase (TPI), is an enzyme (EC 5. ... G3P (structure) Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) is an intermediate in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. ... Symbol(s): GAPDH GAPD Genetic data Locus: Chr. ... Image File history File links D-glucose_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Alpha-D-glucose-6-phosphate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Beta-D-fructose-6-phosphate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Beta-D-fructose-1,6-bisphosphate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Glycerone-phosphate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links D-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links D-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_foward_YYNN_horiz_med. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_reversible_NNNN_horiz_med. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_foward_YYNN_horiz_med. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_reversible_NNNN_horiz_med. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_reversible_NNNN_horiz_med. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_reversible_YYYY_horiz_med. ... 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (1,3BPG), also known as PGAP, is a 3-carbon organic molecule present in most, if not all, living organisms. ... Phosphoglycerate kinase is a transferase enzyme used in the seventh step of glycolysis. ... Glycerate 3-phosphate (GP) or 3-phosphoglycerate (3PG). ... Bisphosphoglycerate mutase (or phosphoglyceromutase) is a mutase enzyme that catalyzes step 8 of glycolysis. ... ... Enolase is an enzyme that participates in glycolysis. ... Name Phosphoenolpyruvate; Phosphoenolpyruvic acid; PEP Formula C3H5O6P Mass 167. ... Pyruvate kinase is an enzyme involved in glycolysis. ... Pyruvic acid (CH3COCO2H) is an alpha-keto acid which plays an important role in biochemical processes. ... Pyruvate dehydrogenase is an enzyme (E1) in the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC). ... Categories: Biochemistry stubs | Thiols ... Image File history File links 1,3-bisphospho-D-glycerate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links 3-phospho-D-glycerate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links 2-phospho-D-glycerate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Phosphoenolpyruvate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Pyruvate_wpmp. ... Coenzyme A (CoA, CoASH, or HSCoA) is a coenzyme, notable for its role in the synthesis and oxidization of fatty acids, and the oxidation of pyruvate in the citric acid cycle. ... Image File history File links Acetyl_co-A_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_reversible_YYYY_horiz_med. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_reversible_NNNN_horiz_med. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_reversible_NYYN_horiz_med. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_foward_YYNN_horiz_med. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_foward_YYNN_horiz_med. ...

• ATP provides an energy source for many cellular functions.
• NADH + H⁺ provides reducing power for other metabolic pathways or further ATP synthesis.
• Pyruvate is used in the citric acid cycle in aerobic respiration to produce more ATP, or is converted to other small carbon molecules in anaerobic respiration.

For simple anaerobic fermentations, the metabolism of one molecule of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate has a net yield of two molecules of ATP. Most cells will then carry out further reactions to 'repay' the used NAD⁺ and produce a final product of ethanol or lactic acid. Many bacteria use inorganic compounds as hydrogen acceptors to regenerate the NAD⁺. Adenosine 5-triphosphate (ATP) is a multifunctional nucleotide that is most important as a molecular currency of intracellular energy transfer. ... Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP) are two important coenzymes found in cells. ... Pyruvate (CH3COCOO−) is the ionized form of pyruvic acid. ... Overview of the citric acid cycle The citric acid cycle (also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle, the TCA cycle, or the Krebs cycle, after Hans Adolf Krebs who identified the cycle) is a series of chemical reactions of central importance in all living cells that use oxygen as part... This article or section should be merged with aerobic metabolism. ... Anaerobic respiration refers to the oxidation of molecules in the absence of oxygen to produce energy, in opposition to Aerobic respiration which does use oxygen. ... Anaerobic respiration refers to the oxidation of molecules in the absence of oxygen to produce energy, in opposition to Aerobic respiration which does use oxygen. ... For other uses, see Fermentation. ... Grain alcohol redirects here. ... For the production of milk by mammals, see Lactation. ...

Cells performing aerobic respiration synthesize much more ATP, but not as part of glycolysis. These further aerobic reactions use pyruvate and NADH + H⁺ from glycolysis. Eukaryotic aerobic respiration produces approximately 34 additional molecules of ATP for each glucose molecule, however most of these are produced by a vastly different mechanism to the substrate-level phosphorylation in glycolysis. This article or section should be merged with aerobic metabolism. ... Pyruvate (CH3COCOO−) is the ionized form of pyruvic acid. ... Substrate-level phosphorylation is a type of chemical reaction that results in the formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the direct transfer of a phosphate group to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) from a reactive intermediate. ...

The lower energy production, per glucose, of anaerobic respiration relative to aerobic respiration, results in greater flux through the pathway under hypoxic (low-oxygen) conditions, unless alternative sources of anerobically-oxidizable substrates, such as fatty acids, are found. General Name, symbol, number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series nonmetals, chalcogens Group, period, block 16, 2, p Appearance colourless (gas) colourless (liquid) Standard atomic weight 15. ...

Discovery

The first formal studies of the glycolytic process were initiated in 1860 when Louis Pasteur discovered that microorganisms are responsible for fermentation, and in 1897 when Eduard Buchner found certain cell extracts can cause fermentation. The next major contribution was from Arthur Harden and William Young in 1905 who determined that a heat-sensitive high-molecular-weight subcellular fraction (the enzymes) and a heat-insensitive low-molecular-weight cytoplasm fraction (ADP, ATP and NAD⁺ and other cofactors) are required together for fermentation to proceed. The details of the pathway itself were eventually determined by 1940, with a major input from Otto Meyerhof and some years later by Luis Leloir. The biggest difficulties in determining the intricacies of the pathway were due to the very short lifetime and low steady-state concentrations of the intermediates of the fast glycolytic reactions. 1860 is the leap year starting on Sunday. ... Louis Pasteur (December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French chemist best known for his remarkable breakthroughs in microbiology. ... A cluster of Escherichia coli bacteria magnified 10,000 times. ... For other uses, see Fermentation. ... 1897 (MDCCCXCVII) was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Eduard Buchner (May 20, 1860 -- August 12, 1917) was a German chemist and zymologist, the winner of the 1907 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on fermentation. ... Arthur Harden (October 12, 1865 – June 17, 1940) was an English biochemist. ... For the recipient of the Victoria Cross, see William Young (VC) Sir William Young (1799-1887) was a Nova Scotia politician and jurist. ... Cofactor may refer to any of the following: Minor (linear algebra) as an alternative name for the determinant of a smaller matrix than that which it describes Cofactor (biochemistry) is a substance that needs to be present in addition to an enzyme for a certain reaction to take place. ... Year 1940 (MCMXL) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Luis Federico Leloir, born September 6, 1906 – died December 2, 1987, was a biochemist born in Paris but who lived all his life in Argentina. ...

Sequence of reactions

These are the major reactions, through which most glucose will pass. There are additional alternative pathways and regulatory products, which are not shown here.

Preparatory phase

The first five steps are regarded as the preparatory (or investment) phase since they consume energy to convert the glucose into two three-carbon sugar phosphates (G3P). G3P (structure) Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) is an intermediate in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. ...

The first step in glycolysis is phosphorylation of glucose by a family of enzymes called hexokinases to form glucose 6-phosphate. This reaction consumes ATP, but it acts to keep the glucose concentration low, promoting continuous transport of glucose into the cell through the plasma membrane transporters. In addition, it blocks the glucose from leaking out - the cell lacks transporters for glucose 6-phosphate. Glucose may alternatively be from the hydrolysis of intracellular starch or glycogen. In animals, an isozyme of hexokinase called glucokinase is also used in the liver, which has a much lower affinity for glucose (Km in the vicinity of normal glycemia), and differs in regulatory properties. The different substrate affinity and alternate regulation of this enzyme are a reflection of the role of the liver in maintaining blood sugar levels. A hexokinase is an enzyme that phosphorylates a six-carbon sugar, a hexose, to a hexose phosphate. ... Glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) is a phosphorylated glucose molecule on carbon 6. ... Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction or process in which a chemical compound is broken down by reaction with water. ... For other uses, see Animal (disambiguation). ... Isozymes, (or isoenzymes) are isoforms (closely related variants) of enzymes. ... Glucokinase Glucokinase (EC 2. ... Glycemia is the concentration of glucose in the blood. ... Cofactors: Mg2+

D-Glucose (Glc) Hexokinase (HK) a transferase α-D-Glucose-6-phosphate (G6P)   ATP ADP

G6P is then rearranged into fructose 6-phosphate by glucose phosphate isomerase. Fructose can also enter the glycolytic pathway by phosphorylation at this point. The change in structure is an isomerization, in which the G6P has been converted to fructose 6-phosphate, (F6P). The reaction requires an enzyme, phosphohexose isomerase, to proceed. This reaction is freely reversible under normal cell conditions. However, it is often driven forward because of a low concentration of fructose 6-phosphate, which is constantly consumed during the next step of glycolysis. Under conditions of high fructose 6-phosphate concentration this reaction readily runs in reverse. This phenomenon can be explained through Le Chatelier's Principle. Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... A hexokinase is an enzyme that phosphorylates a six-carbon sugar, a hexose, to a hexose phosphate. ... Glucose 6-phosphate is glucose sugar phosphorylated on carbon 6. ... Image File history File links Glucose_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Glucose-6-phosphate_wpmp. ... Adenosine 5-triphosphate (ATP) is a multifunctional nucleotide that is most important as a molecular currency of intracellular energy transfer. ... Adenosine diphosphate, abbreviated ADP, is a nucleotide. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_foward_YYNN_horiz_med. ... Fructosephosphates are sugar phosphates based upon fructose. ... Glucose isomerase is an enzyme (EC 5. ... Fructose (or levulose) is a simple sugar (monosaccharide) found in many foods and is one of the three most important blood sugars along with glucose and galactose. ... In chemistry, Le Chateliers principle, also called the Le Chatelier-Braun principle, can be used to predict the effect of a change in conditions on a chemical equilibrium. ...

α-D-Glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) Phosphoglucose isomerase an isomerase β-D-Fructose 6-phosphate (F6P)

The energy expenditure of another ATP in this step is justified in 2 ways: The glycolytic process (up to this step) is now irreversible, and the energy supplied destabilizes the molecule. Because the reaction catalyzed by PFK-1 is energetically very favorable, it is essentially irreversible, and a different pathway must be used to do the reverse conversion during gluconeogenesis. This makes the reaction a key regulatory point (see below). [During fasting, the concentration of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (an allosteric activator of PFK1) is low, such that PFK1 activity is reduced. This leads to an increase of flux through the gluconeogenesis pathway.] Cofactors: Mg2+ Glucose-6-phosphate (G6P) is a phosphorylated glucose molecule on carbon 6. ... Glucose isomerase is an enzyme (EC 5. ... In biochemistry, an isomerase is an enzyme that catalyses the interconversion of polymers. ... Fructosephosphates are sugar phosphates based upon fructose. ... Image File history File links Glucose-6-phosphate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Fructose-6-phosphate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_reversible_NNNN_horiz_med. ... Bacterial Phosphofructokinase: 3rd glycolysis enzyme (smaller than in Eukaryots). ... Pyruvic acid Oxaloacetic acid Phosphoenolpyruvate Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Fructose 6-phosphate Glucose-6-phosphate Glucose Gluconeogenesis is the generation of glucose from non-sugar carbon substrates like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and amino acids (primarily alanine and glutamine). ...

β-D-Fructose 6-phosphate (F6P) phosphofructokinase (PFK-1) a transferase β-D-Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (F1,6BP)   ATP ADP

Destabilizing the molecule in the previous reaction allows the hexose ring to be split by aldolase into two triose sugars, dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.

β-D-Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (F1,6BP) fructose bisphosphate aldolase (ALDO) a lyase D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GADP) dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) +

Triosephosphate isomerase rapidly interconverts dihydroxyacetone phosphate with glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GADP) that proceeds further into glycolysis. This is advantageous, as it directs dihydroxyacetone phosphate down the same pathway as glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, simplifying regulation.

Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) triosephosphate isomerase (TPI) an isomerase D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GADP)

Note - The third step can also be catalysed by pyrophosphate dependent phosphofructokinase (PFP or PPi-PFK). This enzyme catalyses the same reaction as PFK1 (also known as ATP-PFK), but uses pyrophosphate (PPi) as a phosphate donor, instead of ATP. It is a reversible reaction, increasing the flexibility of glycolytic metabolism. This enzyme is not found in animal cells, but is found in most plants, some bacteria, archaea, and protists.^[2] A rarer ADP dependent PFK enzyme (ADP-PFK) variant has been identified in archaean species.^[3]

Fructosephosphates are sugar phosphates based upon fructose. ... Phosphofructokinase (PFK) is the most important regulatory enzyme (EC 2. ... Fructosephosphates are sugar phosphates based upon fructose. ... Image File history File links Fructose-6-phosphate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Beta-D-fructose-1,6-bisphosphate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_foward_YYNN_horiz_med. ... Aldolase is an enzyme which catalyses the aldol reaction: The substrate, fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (F-1,6-BP) is broken down into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP). ... DHAP (or Dihydroxyacetonephosphate) is a biochemical compound involved in many reactions, from the Calvin Cycle in plants to the ether-lipid biosynthesis process in Leishmania mexicana. ... G3P (structure) Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) is an intermediate in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. ... Fructosephosphates are sugar phosphates based upon fructose. ... Aldolase is an enzyme which catalyses the aldol reaction: The substrate, fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (F-1,6-BP) is broken down into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP). ... In biochemistry, a lyase is an enzyme that breaks various chemical bonds by means other than hydrolysis and oxidation, often forming a new double bond or a new ring structure. ... G3P (structure) Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) is an intermediate in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. ... DHAP (or Dihydroxyacetonephosphate) is a biochemical compound involved in many reactions, from the Calvin Cycle in plants to the ether-lipid biosynthesis process in Leishmania mexicana. ... Image File history File links Beta-D-fructose-1,6-bisphosphate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links D-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Glycerone-phosphate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_reversible_NNNN_horiz_med. ... Triose-phosphate isomerase (TPI), is an enzyme (EC 5. ... G3P (structure) Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) is an intermediate in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. ... DHAP (or Dihydroxyacetonephosphate) is a biochemical compound involved in many reactions, from the Calvin Cycle in plants to the ether-lipid biosynthesis process in Leishmania mexicana. ... Triose-phosphate isomerase (TPI), is an enzyme (EC 5. ... G3P (structure) Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) is an intermediate in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. ... Image File history File links Glycerone-phosphate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links D-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_reversible_NNNN_horiz_med. ... Pyrophosphate dependent phosphofructokinase (also known as pyrophosphate: fructose-6-phosphate 1-phosphotransferase, PFP or PPi-PFK, EC 2. ...

Pay-off phase

The second half of glycolysis is known as the pay-off phase, characterised by a net gain of the energy-rich molecules ATP and NADH. Since glucose leads to two triose sugars in the preparatory phase, each reaction in the pay-off phase occurs twice per glucose molecule. This yields 2 NADH molecules and 4 ATP molecules, leading to a net gain of 2 NADH molecules and 2 ATP molecules from the glycolytic pathway per glucose.

The triose sugars are dehydrogenated and inorganic phosphate is added to them, forming 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. The hydrogen is used to reduce two molecules of [[NAD+]], a hydrogen carrier, to give NADH + H+. In chemistry, a phosphate is a polyatomic ion or radical consisting of one phosphorus atom and four oxygen. ... 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (1,3BPG), also known as PGAP, is a 3-carbon organic molecule present in most, if not all, living organisms. ...

glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GADP) glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) an oxidoreductase D-1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3BPG)   NAD+ + Pi NADH + H+ NAD+ + Pi NADH + H+

This step is the enzymatic transfer of a phosphate group from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to ADP by phosphoglycerate kinase, forming ATP and 3-phosphoglycerate. At this step, glycolysis has reached the break-even point: 2 molecules of ATP were consumed, and 2 new molecules have now been synthesized. This step, one of the two substrate-level phosphorylation steps, requires ADP; thus, when the cell has plenty of ATP (and little ADP), this reaction does not occur. Because ATP decays relatively quickly when it is not metabolized, this is an important regulatory point in the glycolytic pathway. Cofactors: Mg2+ G3P (structure) Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) is an intermediate in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. ... Symbol(s): GAPDH GAPD Genetic data Locus: Chr. ... In biochemistry, an oxidoreductase is an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of electrons from one molecule (the oxidant, also called the hydrogen donor or electron donor) to another (the reductant, also called the hydrogen acceptor or electron acceptor). ... 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (1,3BPG), also known as PGAP, is a 3-carbon organic molecule present in most, if not all, living organisms. ... Image File history File links D-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links 1,3-bisphospho-D-glycerate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_reversible_YYYY_horiz_med. ... 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (1,3BPG), also known as PGAP, is a 3-carbon organic molecule present in most, if not all, living organisms. ... Phosphoglycerate kinase is a transferase enzyme used in the seventh step of glycolysis. ... Glycerate 3-phosphate (GP) or 3-phosphoglycerate (3PG). ...

1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3BPG) phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) a transferase 3-phosphoglycerate (3PG)   ADP ATP ADP ATP     phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK)

Phosphoglycerate mutase now forms 2-phosphoglycerate. Notice that this enzyme is a mutase and not an isomerase. Whereas an isomerase changes the oxidation state of the carbons of the compound, a mutase does not.

3-phosphoglycerate (3PG) phosphoglycerate mutase (PGM) a mutase 2-phosphoglycerate (2PG)

Enolase next forms phosphoenolpyruvate from 2-phosphoglycerate. Cofactors: 2 Mg2+: one "conformational" ion to coordinate with the carboxylate group of the substrate, and one "catalytic" ion which participates in the dehydration. 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (1,3BPG), also known as PGAP, is a 3-carbon organic molecule present in most, if not all, living organisms. ... Phosphoglycerate kinase is a transferase enzyme used in the seventh step of glycolysis. ... In biochemistry, a transferase is an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a functional group (e. ... Glycerate 3-phosphate (GP) or 3-phosphoglycerate (3PG). ... Image File history File links 1,3-bisphospho-D-glycerate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links 3-phospho-D-glycerate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_reversible_YYYY_horiz_med. ... Phosphoglycerate kinase is a transferase enzyme used in the seventh step of glycolysis. ... Bisphosphoglycerate mutase (or phosphoglyceromutase) is a mutase enzyme that catalyzes step 8 of glycolysis. ... ... Glycerate 3-phosphate (GP) or 3-phosphoglycerate (3PG). ... Bisphosphoglycerate mutase (or phosphoglyceromutase) is a mutase enzyme that catalyzes step 8 of glycolysis. ... An enzyme that catalyzes the shifting of a functional group from one position to another within the same molecule. ... ... Image File history File links 3-phospho-D-glycerate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links 2-phospho-D-glycerate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_reversible_NNNN_horiz_med. ... Enolase is an enzyme that participates in glycolysis. ... Name Phosphoenolpyruvate; Phosphoenolpyruvic acid; PEP Formula C3H5O6P Mass 167. ... ...

2-phosphoglycerate (2PG) enolase (ENO) a lyase phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)   H2O H2O     enolase (ENO)

A final substrate-level phosphorylation now forms a molecule of pyruvate and a molecule of ATP by means of the enzyme pyruvate kinase. This serves as an additional regulatory step, similar to the phosphoglycerate kinase step. Cofactors: Mg2+ ... Enolase is an enzyme that participates in glycolysis. ... In biochemistry, a lyase is an enzyme that breaks various chemical bonds by means other than hydrolysis and oxidation, often forming a new double bond or a new ring structure. ... Name Phosphoenolpyruvate; Phosphoenolpyruvic acid; PEP Formula C3H5O6P Mass 167. ... Image File history File links 2-phospho-D-glycerate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Phosphoenolpyruvate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_reversible_NYYN_horiz_med. ... Enolase is an enzyme that participates in glycolysis. ... Pyruvate kinase is an enzyme involved in glycolysis. ...

phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) pyruvate kinase (PK) a transferase pyruvate (Pyr)   ADP ATP

Name Phosphoenolpyruvate; Phosphoenolpyruvic acid; PEP Formula C3H5O6P Mass 167. ... Pyruvate kinase is an enzyme involved in glycolysis. ... Pyruvate (CH3COCOO−) is the ionized form of pyruvic acid. ... Image File history File links Phosphoenolpyruvate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Pyruvate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_foward_YYNN_horiz_med. ...

Oxidative decarboxylation

Main article: Pyruvate decarboxylation

This reaction is not technically a reaction of glycolysis, but is very common in most organisms as a link to the citric acid cycle. This reaction is carried out in the mitochondria, unlike the reactions of glycolysis which are cytosolic. The addition of Coenzyme A (CoA) to the pyruvate traps the product, acetyl CoA, within the mitochondria. This is analogous to the phosphorylation of glucose in the first step of glycolysis. It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. ... Overview of the citric acid cycle The citric acid cycle (also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle, the TCA cycle, or the Krebs cycle, after Hans Adolf Krebs who identified the cycle) is a series of chemical reactions of central importance in all living cells that use oxygen as part... In cell biology, a mitochondrion is an organelle found in the cells of most eukaryotes. ... The cytosol (cf. ... Coenzyme A (CoA, CoASH, or HSCoA) is a coenzyme, notable for its role in the synthesis and oxidization of fatty acids, and the oxidation of pyruvate in the citric acid cycle. ... Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule in metabolism, used in many biochemical reactions. ...

pyruvate (Pyr) pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDHC) acetyl CoA (Ac-CoA)   CoA + NAD+ CO2 + NADH + H+

Pyruvate (CH3COCOO−) is the ionized form of pyruvic acid. ... Pyruvate dehydrogenase is an enzyme (E1) in the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC). ... Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule in metabolism, used in many biochemical reactions. ... Image File history File links Pyruvate_wpmp. ... Image File history File links Acetyl_co-A_wpmp. ... COA can refer to: Cash on Arrival Cause of action Center of Attention Church of Areaology Ciphertext-only attack model Clowns of America International (COAI), formerly Clowns of America (COA) Coat of Arms College of the Albemarle College of the Atlantic Commission on Athletics ICAO Designation for Continental Airlines Course... Image File history File links Biochem_reaction_arrow_foward_YYNN_horiz_med. ...

Regulation

See also: Gluconeogenesis

The flux through the glycolytic pathway is adjusted in response to conditions both inside and outside the cell. The rate is regulated to meet two major cellular needs: (1) the production of ATP, and (2) the provision of building blocks for biosynthetic reactions. In some cases the pathway may be halted entirely to allow the reverse process gluconeogenesis. In glycolysis, the reactions catalyzed by hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase are effectively irreversible in most organisms. In metabolic pathways, such enzymes are potential sites of control, and all these three enzymes serve this purpose in glycolysis. Pyruvic acid Oxaloacetic acid Phosphoenolpyruvate Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Fructose 6-phosphate Glucose-6-phosphate Glucose Gluconeogenesis is the generation of glucose from non-sugar carbon substrates like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and amino acids (primarily alanine and glutamine). ... Flux, or metabolic flux is the rate of turnover of molecules through a metabolic pathway or an enzyme. ... Pyruvic acid Oxaloacetic acid Phosphoenolpyruvate Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Fructose 6-phosphate Glucose-6-phosphate Glucose Gluconeogenesis is the generation of glucose from non-sugar carbon substrates like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and amino acids (primarily alanine and glutamine). ... Movie Poster for Irréversible Irréversible (2002, France) is a film written, directed, edited, and photographed by Gaspar Noé. It is considered to be one of the most controversial and disturbing films ever made, due to its explicit on-camera depiction of rape and a vengeful murder. ...

There are several different ways to regulate the activity of an enzyme. An immediate form of control is feedback via allosteric effectors or by covalent modification. A slower form of control is transcriptional regulation that controls the amounts of these important enzymes. For other uses, see Feedback (disambiguation). ... In biochemistry, an enzyme or other protein is allosteric if its activity or efficiency changes in response to the binding of an effector molecule at a so-called allosteric site. ... Transcriptional regulation is the mechanism that coordinates the expression of DNA with the needs of various life processes such as development, gestation and metabolism. ...

Hexokinase

Yeast hexokinase B. PDB 1IG8.

Hexokinase is inhibited by glucose-6-phosphate (G6P), the product it forms through the ATP-driven phosphorylation. This is necessary to prevent an accumulation of G6P in the cell when flux through the glycolytic pathway is low. Glucose will enter the cell, but, since the hexokinase is not active, it can readily diffuse back to the blood through the glucose transporter in the plasma membrane. If hexokinase remained active during low glycolytic flux, the G6P would accumulate and the extra solute would cause the cells to enlarge due to osmosis. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (919x603, 303 KB)By Richard Wheeler (Zephyris) 2006. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (919x603, 303 KB)By Richard Wheeler (Zephyris) 2006. ... Typical divisions Ascomycota (sac fungi) Saccharomycotina (true yeasts) Taphrinomycotina Schizosaccharomycetes (fission yeasts) Basidiomycota (club fungi) Urediniomycetes Sporidiales Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with approximately 1,500 species described. ... A hexokinase is an enzyme that phosphorylates a six-carbon sugar, a hexose, to a hexose phosphate. ... The Protein Data Bank (PDB) is a repository for 3-D structural data of proteins and nucleic acids. ... A hexokinase is an enzyme that phosphorylates a six-carbon sugar, a hexose, to a hexose phosphate. ...

In animals, regulation of blood glucose levels by the liver is a vital part of homeostasis. In liver cells, any extra G6P is stored as glycogen. In these cells, hexokinase is not expressed; instead glucokinase catalyses the phosphorylation of glucose to G6P. This enzyme is not inhibited by high levels of G6P, and glucose can still be converted to G6P and then be stored as glycogen. This is important when blood glucose levels are high. During hypoglycemia, the glycogen can be converted back to G6P and then converted to glucose by a liver-specific enzyme glucose 6-phosphatase. This reverse reaction is an important role of liver cells to maintain blood sugars levels during fasting. This is critical for neuron function, since they can use only glucose as an energy source. Homeostasis is the property of either an open system or a closed system, especially a living organism, which regulates its internal environment so as to maintain a stable, constant condition. ... Glycogen Structure Segment Glycogen is a polysaccharide of glucose (Glc) which functions as the primary short term energy storage in animal cells. ... Glucokinase Glucokinase (EC 2. ... Hypoglycemia (hypoglycaemia in British English) is a medical term referring to a pathologic state produced by a lower than normal level of glucose (sugar) in the blood. ... Glucose 6-phosphatase is an enzyme in the glycogenolysis pathway that removes the phosphate from glucose 6-phosphate. ...

Phosphofructokinase

Bacillus stearothermophilus phosphofructokinase. PDB 6PFK.

Phosphofructokinase is an important control point in the glycolytic pathway, since it is immediately downstream of the entry points for hexose sugars. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1002x855, 706 KB)By Richard Wheeler (Zephyris) 2006. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1002x855, 706 KB)By Richard Wheeler (Zephyris) 2006. ... Bacillus stearothermophilus is a rod-shaped, Gram-positive bacteria and a member of the division Firmicutes. ... Phosphofructokinase (PFK) is the most important regulatory enzyme (EC 2. ... The Protein Data Bank (PDB) is a repository for 3-D structural data of proteins and nucleic acids. ... Phosphofructokinase (PFK) is the most important regulatory enzyme (EC 2. ...

High levels of ATP inhibit the PFK enzyme by lowering its affinity for F6P. ATP causes this control by binding to a specific regulatory site that is distinct from the catalytic site. This is a good example of allosteric control. AMP can reverse the inhibitory effect of ATP. A consequence is that PFK is tightly controlled by the ratio of ATP/AMP in the cell. This makes sense, because these molecules are direct indicators of the energy charge in the cell. In biochemistry, an enzyme or other protein is allosteric if its activity or efficiency changes in response to the binding of an effector molecule at a so-called allosteric site. ... Energy charge is one of several ways to represent the energy status of a cell. ...

Since glycolysis is also a source of carbon skeletons for biosynthesis, a negative feedback control to glycolysis from the carbon skeleton pool is useful. Citrate is an example of a metabolite that regulates phosphofructokinase by enhancing the inhibitory effect of ATP. Citrate is an early intermediate in the citric acid cycle, and a high level means that biosynthetic precursors are abundant. Chemical strucutre of citric acid. ...

Low pH also inhibits phosphofructokinase activity and prevents the excessive rise of lactic acid during anaerobic conditions that could otherwise cause a drop in blood pH (acidosis), (a potentially life-threatening condition). For the production of milk by mammals, see Lactation. ... For acidosis referring to acidity of the urine, see renal tubular acidosis. ...

Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (F2,6BP) is a potent activator of phosphofructokinase (PFK-1) that is synthesised when F6P is phosphorylated by a second phosphofructokinase (PFK2). This second enzyme is inactive when cAMP is high, and links the regulation of glycolysis to hormone activity in the body. Both glucagon and adrenalin cause high levels of cAMP in the liver. The result is lower levels of liver fructose 2,6-bisphosphate such that gluconeogenesis (glycolysis in reverse) is favored. This is consistent with the role of the liver in such situations, since the response of the liver to these hormones is to releases glucose to the blood. Fructosephosphates are sugar phosphates based upon fructose. ... Phosphofructokinase-2 (PFK2) is one activity of a bifunctional enzyme (EC 2. ... Glucagon ball and stick model A microscopic image stained for glucagon. ... Adrenaline redirects here. ...

Pyruvate kinase and phosphoglycerate kinase

Yeast pyruvate kinase. PDB 1A3W.

Pyruvate kinase and phosphoglycerate kinase catalyze the two substrate-level phosphorylation steps, and produce ATP from ADP. The requirement of ADP to carry out this reaction provides regulation, as, when the cell has plenty of ATP, it will have little ADP so this reaction is unable to happen. ATP decays relatively quickly, even when not used as an energy source; these stages provide the required simple and fast regulation of ATP levels. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (870x772, 481 KB)By Richard Wheeler (Zephyris) 2006. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (870x772, 481 KB)By Richard Wheeler (Zephyris) 2006. ... Typical divisions Ascomycota (sac fungi) Saccharomycotina (true yeasts) Taphrinomycotina Schizosaccharomycetes (fission yeasts) Basidiomycota (club fungi) Urediniomycetes Sporidiales Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with approximately 1,500 species described. ... Pyruvate kinase is an enzyme involved in glycolysis. ... The Protein Data Bank (PDB) is a repository for 3-D structural data of proteins and nucleic acids. ... Pyruvate kinase is an enzyme involved in glycolysis. ... Phosphoglycerate kinase is a transferase enzyme used in the seventh step of glycolysis. ... Substrate-level phosphorylation is a type of chemical reaction that results in the formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the direct transfer of a phosphate group to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) from a reactive intermediate. ...

This control is accentuated, as, after the formation of F1,6bP, many of the glycolysis reactions are energetically unfavorable. The only reactions that are favorable are these two substrate-level phosphorylation steps. These two reactions pull the glycolytic pathway to completion when ADP is low and ATP is required.

Post-glycolysis processes

The ultimate fate of pyruvate and NADH produced in glycolysis depends upon the organism and the conditions, most notably the presence or absence of oxygen and other external electron acceptors. In addition, not all carbon entering the pathway leaves as pyruvate and may be extracted at earlier stages to provide carbon compounds for other pathways.

Aerobic respiration

Main article: Aerobic respiration

In aerobic organisms, pyruvate typically goes through a conversion step from pyruvate to Acetyl CoA, in order to enter the mitochondria, where it is fully oxidized to carbon dioxide and water by pyruvate decarboxylase (oxidative decarboxylation) and the set of enzymes of the citric acid cycle. The products of pyruvate are sequentially dehydrogenated as they pass through the cycle, powering the reduction of NAD⁺ to NADH. In turn, the NADH is ultimately oxidized by an electron transport chain, using oxygen as final electron acceptor to produce a large amount of ATP via the action of the ATP synthase complex, a process known as oxidative phosphorylation. A small amount of ATP is also produced by substrate-level phosphorylation during the citric acid cycle. This article or section should be merged with aerobic metabolism. ... Aerobic and anaerobic bacteria can be identified by growning them in liquid culture: 1: Obligate aerobic bacteria gather at the top of the test tube in order to absorb maximal amount of oxygen. ... In cell biology, a mitochondrion is an organelle found in the cells of most eukaryotes. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... Pyruvate decarboxylase is a homotetrameric enzyme(EC 4. ... Overview of the citric acid cycle The citric acid cycle (also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle, the TCA cycle, or the Krebs cycle, after Hans Adolf Krebs who identified the cycle) is a series of chemical reactions of central importance in all living cells that use oxygen as part... The Electron Transport Chain. ... An ATP synthase (EC 3. ... The electron transport chain in the mitochondrion is the site of oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotes. ...

Anaerobic respiration

Main article: Anaerobic respiration

In animals, including humans, metabolism is primarily aerobic. However, under hypoxic (or partially-anaerobic) conditions, for example, in overworked muscles that are starved of oxygen or in infracted heart muscle cells, pyruvate is converted to lactate by anaerobic respiration (also known as fermentation). This is a solution to maintaining the metabolic flux through glycolysis in response to an anaerobic or severely-hypoxic environment. In many tissues, this is a cellular last resort for energy, and most animal tissue cannot maintain anaerobic respiration for an extended length of time. Many single cellular organisms use anaerobic respiration only as an energy source. Anaerobic respiration refers to the oxidation of molecules in the absence of oxygen to produce energy, in opposition to Aerobic respiration which does use oxygen. ... Human beings are defined variously in biological, spiritual, and cultural terms, or in combinations thereof. ... For the production of milk by mammals, see Lactation. ... Anaerobic respiration refers to the oxidation of molecules in the absence of oxygen to produce energy, in opposition to Aerobic respiration which does use oxygen. ... For other uses, see Fermentation. ...

Glycolysis is insufficient for anaerobic respiration, as it does not regenerate NAD⁺ from the NADH + H⁺ it produces. It is therefore critical for an anaerobic or hypoxic cell to carry out the additional steps of lactate or alcohol production to regenerate NAD⁺ that is required for glycolysis to proceed. This is important for normal cellular function, as glycolysis is the only source of ATP in anaerobic or severely-hypoxic conditions. Anaerobic respiration refers to the oxidation of molecules in the absence of oxygen to produce energy, in opposition to Aerobic respiration which does use oxygen. ... Lactic acid is a chemical compound that plays a role in several biochemical processes. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

There are several types of anaerobic respiration wherein pyruvate and NADH are anaerobically metabolized to yield any of a variety of products with an organic molecule acting as the final hydrogen acceptor. For example, the bacteria involved in making yogurt simply reduce pyruvate to lactic acid, whereas yeast produces ethanol and carbon dioxide. Anaerobic bacteria are capable of using a wide variety of compounds, other than oxygen, as terminal electron acceptors in respiration: nitrogenous compounds (such as nitrates and nitrites), sulphur compounds (such as sulphates, sulphites, sulphur dioxide, and elemental sulphur), carbon dioxide, iron compounds, manganese compounds, cobalt compounds, and uranium compounds. Phyla/Divisions Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Omnibacteria Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria (singular, bacterium) are a major group of living organisms. ... For the production of milk by mammals, see Lactation. ... Typical divisions Ascomycota (sac fungi) Saccharomycotina (true yeasts) Taphrinomycotina Schizosaccharomycetes (fission yeasts) Basidiomycota (club fungi) Urediniomycetes Sporidiales Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with approximately 1,500 species described. ... Grain alcohol redirects here. ... Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. ...

Intermediates for other pathways

This article concentrates on the catabolic role of glycolysis with regard to converting potential chemical energy to usable chemical energy during the oxidation of glucose to pyruvate. However, many of the metabolites in the glycolytic pathway are also used by anabolic pathways, and, as a consequence, flux through the pathway is critical to maintain a supply of carbon skeletons for biosynthesis. Anabolism is the aspect of metabolism that contributes to growth. ... Anabolic is an adjective referring to processes of metabolism that result in growth of cells or organisms. ...

These metabolic pathways are all strongly reliant on glycolysis as a source of metabolites:

• Gluconeogenesis
• Lipid metabolism
• Pentose phosphate pathway
• Citric acid cycle, which in turn leads to:

• Amino acid synthesis
• Nucleotide synthesis
• Tetrapyrrole synthesis

From an energy perspective, NADH is either recycled to NAD+ during anaerobic conditions, to maintain the flux through the glycolytic pathway, or used during aerobic conditions to produce more ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. From an anabolic metabolism perspective, the NADH has a role to drive synthetic reactions, doing so by directly or indirectly reducing the pool of NADP+ in the cell to NADPH, which is another important reducing agent for biosynthetic pathways in a cell. Pyruvic acid Oxaloacetic acid Phosphoenolpyruvate Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Fructose 6-phosphate Glucose-6-phosphate Glucose Gluconeogenesis is the generation of glucose from non-sugar carbon substrates like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and amino acids (primarily alanine and glutamine). ... Fatty acids are an important source of energy for many organisms. ... The pentose phosphate pathways Nonoxidative phase The pentose phosphate pathway (also called Phosphogluconate Pathway, or Hexose Monophosphate Shunt [HMP shunt]) is a process that serves to generate NADPH and the synthesis of pentose (5-carbon) sugars. ... Overview of the citric acid cycle The citric acid cycle (also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle, the TCA cycle, or the Krebs cycle, after Hans Adolf Krebs who identified the cycle) is a series of chemical reactions of central importance in all living cells that use oxygen as part... For the non-biological synthesis of amino acids see: Strecker amino acid synthesis Amino acid synthesis is the set of biochemical processes (metabolic pathways) by which the various amino acids are produced from other compounds. ... The electron transport chain in the mitochondrion is the site of oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotes. ... Anabolism is the metabolic process that builds larger molecules from smaller ones. ...

Glycolysis in disease

Genetic diseases

Glycolytic mutations are generally rare due to importance of the metabolic pathway, however some mutations are seen.

In cancer

Malignant rapidly-growing tumor cells typically have glycolytic rates that are up to 200 times higher than those of their normal tissues of origin. There are two common explanations. The classical explanation is that there is poor blood supply to tumors causing local depletion of oxygen. There is also evidence that attributes some of these high aerobic glycolytic rates to an overexpressed form of mitochondrially-bound hexokinase^[4] responsible for driving the high glycolytic activity. This phenomenon was first described in 1930 by Otto Warburg, and hence it is referred to as the Warburg effect. Warburg hypothesis claims that cancer is primarily caused by dysfunctionality in mitochondrial metabolism, rather than because of uncontrolled growth of cells. There is ongoing research to affect mitochondrial metabolism and treat cancer by starving cancerous cells in various new ways, including a ketogenic diet. For malignant tumors specifically, see cancer. ... A hexokinase is an enzyme that phosphorylates a six-carbon sugar, a hexose, to a hexose phosphate. ... The Warburg effect (sometimes confused with the Warburg hypothesis) is the inhibition of carbon dioxide fixation, and subsequently photosynthesis, by high oxygen concentrations. ... Warburgs hypothesis (sometimes confused with the unrelated Warburg effect) was postulated by the scientist Otto Heinrich Warburg in 1924. ... The ketogenic diet is a very high fat diet that relies on inducing a state of ketosis. ...

This high glycolysis rate has important medical applications, as high aerobic glycolysis by malignant tumors is utilized clinically to diagnose and monitor treatment responses of cancers by imaging uptake of 2-¹⁸F-2-deoxyglucose (a radioactive modified hexokinase substrate) with positron emission tomography (PET).^[5][6] For other uses, see Cancer (disambiguation). ... Imaging refers to the science of obtaining pictures or more complicated spatial representations, such as animations or 3-D computer graphics models, from physical things. ... Fluorodeoxyglucose is a molecule that is an analogue of glucose. ... Radioactive decay is the set of various processes by which unstable atomic nuclei (nuclides) emit subatomic particles. ... For other uses, see Substrate. ... Image of a typical positron emission tomography (PET) facility Positron emission tomography (PET) is a nuclear medicine medical imaging technique which produces a three-dimensional image or map of functional processes in the body. ...

Alternative nomenclature

Some of the metabolites in glycolysis have alternative names and nomenclature. In part, this is because some of them are common to other pathways, such as the Calvin cycle.

Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... Fructosephosphates are sugar phosphates based upon fructose. ... Fructosephosphates are sugar phosphates based upon fructose. ... DHAP (or Dihydroxyacetonephosphate) is a biochemical compound involved in many reactions, from the Calvin Cycle in plants to the ether-lipid biosynthesis process in Leishmania mexicana. ... G3P (structure) Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P) is an intermediate in both glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. ... 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (1,3BPG), also known as PGAP, is a 3-carbon organic molecule present in most, if not all, living organisms. ... Glycerate 3-phosphate (GP) or 3-phosphoglycerate (3PG). ... ... Name Phosphoenolpyruvate; Phosphoenolpyruvic acid; PEP Formula C3H5O6P Mass 167. ... Pyruvate (CH3COCOO−) is the ionized form of pyruvic acid. ...

See also

• Pentose phosphate pathway
• Gluconeogenesis
• Fermentation (biochemistry)
• Pyruvate decarboxylation

The pentose phosphate pathways Nonoxidative phase The pentose phosphate pathway (also called Phosphogluconate Pathway, or Hexose Monophosphate Shunt [HMP shunt]) is a process that serves to generate NADPH and the synthesis of pentose (5-carbon) sugars. ... Pyruvic acid Oxaloacetic acid Phosphoenolpyruvate Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Fructose 6-phosphate Glucose-6-phosphate Glucose Gluconeogenesis is the generation of glucose from non-sugar carbon substrates like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and amino acids (primarily alanine and glutamine). ... For other uses, see Fermentation. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. ...

External links

• The Glycolytic enzymes in Glycolysis at Protein Data Bank
• Glycolytic cycle with animations at wdv.com
• Metabolism, Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology at biochemweb.org
• notes on glycolysis at rahulgladwin.com
• The chemical logic behind glycolysis at ufp.pt
• Expasy biochemical pathways poster at ExPASy
• Mnemonic at medicalmnemonics.com 317 5468

The Protein Data Bank (PDB) is a repository for 3-D structural data of proteins and nucleic acids. ... The ExPASy (Expert Protein Analysis System) proteomics server of the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics (SIB) is dedicated to the analysis of protein sequences and structures as well as 2-D PAGE. this is in collaboration with the eurpean institute of bioinformatics. ... For other uses, see Mnemonic (disambiguation). ...

References

1. ^ Romano AH, Conway T. (1996) Evolution of carbohydrate metabolic pathways. Res Microbiol. 147(6-7):448-55 PMID 9084754
2. ^ Reeves, R. E.; South D. J., Blytt H. J. and Warren L. G. (1974). "Pyrophosphate: D-fructose 6-phosphate 1-phosphotransferase. A new enzyme with the glycolytic function 6-phosphate 1-phosphotransferase.". J Biol Chem 249: 7737–7741. PMID 4372217. 
3. ^ Selig, M.; Xavier K. B., Santos H. and Schönheit P. (1997). "Comparative analysis of Embden-Meyerhof and Entner-Doudoroff glycolytic pathways in hyperthermophilic archaea and the bacterium Thermotoga.". Arch Microbiol 167: 217-232. PMID 9075622. 
4. ^ High Aerobic Glycolysis of Rat Hepatoma Cells in Culture: Role of Mitochondrial Hexokinase -- Bustamante and Pedersen 74 (9): 3735 -- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. Retrieved on December 5, 2005.
5. ^ PET Scan: PET Scan Info Reveals .... Retrieved on December 5, 2005.
6. ^ 4320139 549..559. Retrieved on December 5, 2005.

v • d • e Metabolism map

is the 339th day of the year (340th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 339th day of the year (340th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 339th day of the year (340th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Image File history File links Glucose_wpmp. ... Cellular respiration was discovered by mad scientist Mr. ... This article or section should be merged with aerobic metabolism. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. ... Overview of the citric acid cycle The citric acid cycle (also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle, the TCA cycle, or the Krebs cycle, after Hans Adolf Krebs who identified the cycle) is a series of chemical reactions of central importance in all living cells that use oxygen as part... The electron transport chain in the mitochondrion is the site of oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotes. ... The Electron Transport Chain. ... An ATP synthase (EC 3. ... Anaerobic respiration refers to the oxidation of molecules in the absence of oxygen to produce energy, in opposition to Aerobic respiration which does use oxygen. ... For the production of milk by mammals, see Lactation. ... Grain alcohol redirects here. ... Structure of the coenzyme adenosine triphosphate, a central intermediate in energy metabolism. ... The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for some carbohydrate metabolism. ... For other uses, see Fermentation. ... Beer - A Product of Ethanol Fermentation Ethanol fermentation is the biological process by which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose, are converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide. ... Lactic acid Lactic acid fermentation is a form of anaerobic respiration that occurs in some bacteria and animal cells in the absence of oxygen. ... Pyruvic acid Oxaloacetic acid Phosphoenolpyruvate Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Fructose 6-phosphate Glucose-6-phosphate Glucose Gluconeogenesis is the generation of glucose from non-sugar carbon substrates like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and amino acids (primarily alanine and glutamine). ... Glycogenesis is the process of glycogen synthesis, in which glucose molecules are added to chains of glycogen. ... Glycogen Glucose Glucose-6-phosphate Glycogenolysis is the catabolism of glycogen by removal of a glucose monomer and addition of phosphate to produce glucose-1-phosphate. ... The pentose phosphate pathways Nonoxidative phase The pentose phosphate pathway (also called Phosphogluconate Pathway, or Hexose Monophosphate Shunt [HMP shunt]) is a process that serves to generate NADPH and the synthesis of pentose (5-carbon) sugars. ... The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in plants. ... Carbon fixation is a process found in autotrophs, usually driven by photosynthesis, whereby carbon dioxide is converted into organic compounds. ... Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units. ... Cellular respiration was discovered by mad scientist Mr. ... Structure of the coenzyme adenosine triphosphate, a central intermediate in energy metabolism. ... Image File history File links Metabolism_790px_partly_labeled. ... Glucuronate metabolism Pentose interconversion Inositol metabolism Cellulose and sucrose metabolism Starch and glycogen metabolism Other sugar metabolism Pentose phosphate pathway Glycolysis and Gluconeogenesis Amino sugars metabolism Small amino acid synthesis Branched amino acid synthesis Purine biosynthesis Histidine metabolism Aromatic amino acid synthesis Pyruvate decarboxylation Anaerobic respiration Fatty acid metabolism Urea cycle Aspartate amino acid group synthesis Porphyrins and corrinoids metabolism Citric acid cycle Glutamate amino acid group synthesis Pyrimidine biosynthesis  v • d • e  All pathway labels on this image are links, simply click to access the article. A high resolution labeled version of this image is available here.

Ball-and-stick model of β-D-glucuronic acid The α-D form of glucuronic acid. ... A pentose is a monosaccharide with five carbon atoms. ... Inositol, (of which the most prominent naturally-ocurring form is myo-inositol, cis-1,2,3,5-trans-4,6-cyclohexanehexol), is a carbocyclic polyol that plays an important role as the structural basis for a number of secondary messengers in eukaryotic cells, including inositol phosphates, phosphatidylinositol (PI) and phosphatidylinositol... The pentose phosphate pathways Nonoxidative phase The pentose phosphate pathway (also called Phosphogluconate Pathway, or Hexose Monophosphate Shunt [HMP shunt]) is a process that serves to generate NADPH and the synthesis of pentose (5-carbon) sugars. ... Pyruvic acid Oxaloacetic acid Phosphoenolpyruvate Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Fructose 6-phosphate Glucose-6-phosphate Glucose Gluconeogenesis is the generation of glucose from non-sugar carbon substrates like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and amino acids (primarily alanine and glutamine). ... Glucosamine Sialic acid In chemistry, an amino sugar contains an amine group in place of a hydroxyl group. ... Alanine transaminase or ALT is a transaminase enzyme (EC 2. ... leucine isoleucine valine The phrase branched-chain amino acids or BCAA is sometimes used to refer to the amino acids having aliphatic side-chains that are non-linear. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The histidine bound haem group of succinate dehydrogenase, an electron carrier in the mitochondrial electron transfer chain. ... phenylalanine tryptophan tyrosine thyroxine Aromatic amino acids are amino acids which include an aromatic ring. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. ... Anaerobic respiration refers to the oxidation of molecules in the absence of oxygen to produce energy, in opposition to Aerobic respiration which does use oxygen. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... The reactions of the urea cycle. ... Overview of the citric acid cycle The citric acid cycle (also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle, the TCA cycle, or the Krebs cycle, after Hans Adolf Krebs who identified the cycle) is a series of chemical reactions of central importance in all living cells that use oxygen as part... Pyrimidine biosynthesis occurs both in the body and through organic synthesis. ... Image File history File links Gtk-dialog-info. ... Image File history File links Metabolism_790px. ... The smooth endoplasmic reticulum is responsible for some carbohydrate metabolism. ... Pyruvic acid Oxaloacetic acid Phosphoenolpyruvate Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Fructose 6-phosphate Glucose-6-phosphate Glucose Gluconeogenesis is the generation of glucose from non-sugar carbon substrates like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and amino acids (primarily alanine and glutamine). ... Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ... Glucokinase Glucokinase (EC 2. ... A hexokinase is an enzyme that phosphorylates a six-carbon sugar, a hexose, to a hexose phosphate. ... Glucose 6-phosphatase is an enzyme in the glycogenolysis pathway that removes the phosphate from glucose 6-phosphate. ... Glucose Isomerase is an enzyme (EC 5. ... Bacterial Phosphofructokinase: 3rd glycolysis enzyme (smaller than in Eukaryots). ... Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is an enzyme used in the gluconeogenesis to form fructose-6-phosphate from fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. ... Aldolase is an enzyme which catalyses the aldol reaction: The substrate, fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (F-1,6-BP) is broken down into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP). ... Triose-phosphate isomerase (TPI), is an enzyme (EC 5. ... Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is an important enzyme used in reaction 6 of glycolysis. ... Phosphoglycerate kinase is a transferase enzyme used in the seventh step of glycolysis. ... Bisphosphoglycerate mutase (or phosphoglyceromutase) is a mutase enzyme that catalyzes step 8 of glycolysis. ... Enolase is an enzyme that participates in glycolysis. ... Pyruvate kinase is an enzyme involved in glycolysis. ... Pyruvate carboxylase is an enzyme of the ligase class (EC 6. ... Phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (or PEPCase) is an enzyme in the family of carboxy-lyases. ... Lactic acid is a chemical compound that plays a role in several biochemical processes. ... The Cori cycle, named after its discoverers, Carl Cori and Gerty Cori, refers to the cycling of lactate produced by red blood cells and muscle (during anaerobic respiration) back into glucose. ... Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is an enzyme (EC 1. ... Alanine (Ala, A) also 2-aminopropanoic acid is a non-essential α-amino acid. ... The alanine cycle is quite similar to the Cori cycle. ... Alanine transaminase or ALT is an enzyme (EC 2. ... Phosphofructokinase-2 (PFK2) is one activity of a bifunctional enzyme (EC 2. ... Fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase is an enzyme that catalyzes the following reaction: fructose-2,6-bisphosphate + H2O ---> fructose-6-phosphate + phosphate ion Fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase is important in regulation of gluconeogenesis & glycolysis as it catalyzes the dephosphorylation of fructose-2,6-bisphosphate, which activates phosphofructokinase-1 (a critical enzyme... Symbol(s): BPGM Genetic data Locus: Chr. ...