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This article or section does not cite its references or sources. You can help Wikipedia by introducing appropriate citations. Eritrea is an ancient name, associated in the past with its Greek form Erythraía (Greek alphabet Ερυθραία), and its derived Latin form Erythræa. In the past, Eritrea had given its name to the Red Sea, then called the Erythræan Sea. Because of technical limitations, some web browsers may not display some special characters in this article. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. ... Location of the Red Sea Image:Red Seaimage. ... Eritrea officially celebrated its independence on May 24, 1993. May 24 is the 144th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (145th in leap years). ... 1993 (MCMXCIII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and marked the Beginning of the International Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (1993-2003). ... Contents 1 Pre history 2 Early history 3 Medieval History 4 Italian colonization 4.1 The beginnings of Italian presence in Assab 4.2 Italian occupation of Massawa and formation of the colony 5 British administration and federalization 6 Fight for independence 7 Establishing an independent country 8 After independence 9 References [edit] Pre history In 1998, a cranium of a hominid, an intermediate between a Homo Erectus and an archaic Homo Sapien was found in Buya, Eritrea by American scientists dated to over 1 million years old (the oldest of its kind), providing a link between hominids and the earliest humans.[1] It is also believed that Eritrea was on the route out of Africa that was used by early man to colonize the rest of the Old World.[2] Binomial name †Homo erectus (Dubois, 1892) Synonyms † Pithecanthropus erectus † Sinanthropus pekinensis † Javanthropus soloensis † Meganthropus paleojavanicus Homo erectus (upright man) is an extinct species of genus Homo. ... Human beings are defined variously in biological, spiritual, and cultural terms, or in combinations thereof. ... Furthermore, the Eritrean Research Project Team comprised of Eritrean, Canadian, American, Dutch and French scientists, discovered in 1999 a site with stone and obsidian tools dated to over 125 000 years old (from the paleolithic) era near the Bay of Zula south of Massawa along the Red Sea coast. The tools are believed to have been used by early humans to harvest marine resources like clams and oysters.[3] Furthermore it is believed that the Eritrean section of the Denakil Depression was a major player in terms of human evolution and may "document the entire evolution of Homo erectus up to the transition to anatomically modern humans."[4] The Paleolithic or Palaeolithic (Greek παλαιός paleos=old and λίθος lithos=stone or the Old Stone Age) was the first period in the development of human technology of the Stone Age. ... Massawa in the 19th century Massawa or Mitsiwa (15° 36′ 33″ N 39° 26′ 43″ E) is a port on the Red Sea coast of Eritrea. ... Location of the Red Sea Image:Red Seaimage. ... Cave paintings in central and northwestern Eritrea were also discovered by Italian colonialists indicating a population of hunter gatherers from the Epipaleolithic era in the region. The Epipalaeolithic (or Epi-Palaeolithic, Epipaleolithic, or Epi-Paleolithic) was a period in the development of human technology that immediately precedes the neolithic period, as an alternative to mesolithic. ... [edit] Early history Main article: Kingdom of Aksum Eritrean history is one of the oldest of sub-Saharan Africa and even the world. Together with Ethiopia and the western Red Sea coast of Sudan, it is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient Egyptians as Punt (or "Ta Netjeru," meaning land of the Gods), whose first mention dates to the 25th century BC. The earliest known reference to the Sea of Eritrea (referring to the Red Sea, "Eritrea" meaning "red") from which the modern state takes its name is from Aeschylus (Fragment 67) in which he refers to the "Mare Erythreum" ("Red Sea") as "the lake that is the jewel of Ethiopia" (though Ethiopia in this case most probably meant Nubia or Africa south of Egypt in general). Around the 8th century BC, a kingdom known as D'mt was established in northern Ethiopia and Eritrea, with its capital at Yeha in northern Ethiopia. Its successor, the Kingdom of Aksum, emerged around the 1st century BC or 1st century AD and grew to be, according to Mani, one of the four greatest civilizations in the world, along with China, Persia, and Rome. Central areas of Eritrea and most tribes in today's northern Ethiopia share a common background and cultural heritage in the Kingdom of Aksum (and its successor dynasties) of the first millennium (as well as the first millennium BC kingdom of D’mt), and in its Ethiopian Orthodox Christian Church (today, with an autocephalous Eritrean branch), as well as in its Ge'ez language. Around 90% of today's Eritreans speak languages (Tigrinya and Tigre) that are closely related to the now-extinct Geez language - as do Tigrinya-speakers in northern Ethiopia and Amharic-speakers of Ethiopia, among others. The Kingdom of Aksum (or Axum), was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa, growing from ca. ... Location of the Red Sea Image:Red Seaimage. ... Look up Punt in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... (26th century BC - 25th century BC - 24th century BC - other centuries) (4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC) [edit] Events 2900 BC - 2334 BC -- Mesopotamian wars of the Early Dynastic period. ... Location of the Red Sea Image:Red Seaimage. ... Bust of Aeschylus from the Capitoline Museums, Rome Aeschylus (525 BC—456 BC; Greek: Ασχύλος) was a playwright of Ancient Greece. ... Today Nubia is the region in the south of Egypt, along the Nile and in northern Sudan, but in ancient times it was an independent kingdom. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) Events and trends Ruins of the training grounds at Olympia, Greece. ... Dmt is the Arabic name for a kingdom on the northern Ethiopian plateau that existed from around 800 BC until it was united in the Aksum kingdom around the birth of Jesus. ... Yeha is a town in the north of Ethiopia, located in the region of Tigray. ... The Kingdom of Aksum (or Axum), was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa, growing from ca. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 1st century BC started on January 1, 100 BC and ended on December 31, 1 BC. An alternative name for this century is the last century BC. The AD/BC notation does not use a year zero. ... The 1st century was that century which lasted from 1 to 100 according the Gregorian calendar. ... Mani may refer to: Mani Peninsula in Greece Maní, Yucatán, a small city in Yucatán, Mexico Mani, Evros, a town in the northeastern part of the Evros Prefecture in Greece Mani (prophet), a third-century Persian prophet, the founder of the dualistic Manichaean religion, which borrowed eclectically from... For other uses of this term see: Persia (disambiguation) The Persian Empire is the name used to refer to a number of historic dynasties that have ruled the country of Persia (Iran). ... Nickname: The Eternal City Location of the city of Rome (yellow) within the Province of Rome (red) and region of Lazio (grey) Coordinates: Region Lazio Province Province of Rome Founded 8th century BC Mayor Walter Veltroni Area    - City 1,285 km²  (496. ... The Kingdom of Aksum (or Axum), was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa, growing from ca. ... Dmt is the Arabic name for a kingdom on the northern Ethiopian plateau that existed from around 800 BC until it was united in the Aksum kingdom around the birth of Jesus. ... This Ethiopian icon shows St. ... The Geez language (or Giiz language) is an ancient language that developed in the Ethiopian Highlands of the Horn of Africa as the language of the peasantry. ... Tigrigna (or ትግሪኛ) is a Semitic language spoken in Eritrea, where it is the official language, and in parts of Ethiopia and Israel. ... Tigre is a Semitic language descended from Geez and is closely related to Tigrinya and Amharic. ... [edit] Medieval History With the rise of Islam in the 7th century, the power of Aksum declined and the Kingdom became isolated, falling to the pagan or Jewish queen Gudit in the 9th or 10th century, and the rule of the Zagwe dynasty. The Dahlak archipelago, northern and western Eritrea came under increasing control of the Islamic powers based in Yemen and Beja lands in Sudan. The Beja rulers in Eritrea, while maintaining their own language and culture also adopted the local Ge'ez based language of Axumite origins which later came to evolve into Tigre[citation needed] with a heavy Arabic influence and serve as the regional lingua franca among diverse nomadic tribes. The Beja were often in alliance with (the Umayyads of Arabia who themselves established footholds along stretches of the Eritrean coastline and the Dahlak archipelago while the Funj of Sudan exacted tribute from the adjacent western lowlands of Eritrea. Gudit (or Judith; also known as Esato) is a semi-legendary non-Christian queen (flourished c. ... The Zagwe Dynasty ruled Ethiopia from the end of the Kingdom of Axum to 1270, when Yekuno Amlak defeated and killed the last Zagwe king in battle. ... BEJA PEOPLE The Beja tribes are the indigenous inhabitants of the Eastern Region of the Sudan. ... The Geez language (or Giiz language) is an ancient language that developed in the Ethiopian Highlands of the Horn of Africa as the language of the peasantry. ... Tigre may mean: Tiger in Spanish language. ... The Umayyad Dynasty (Arabic الأمويون / بنو أمية umawiyy; in Turkish, Emevi) was the first dynasty of caliphs of the Prophet Muhammad who were not closely related to Muhammad himself, though they were of the same Meccan tribe, the... The Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula is a mainly desert peninsula in Southwest Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia and an important part of the greater Middle East. ... Dahlak (Dahaalik, Dahalik) is a newly discovered language spoken exclusively in Eritrea off of Massawa, on three islands in the Dahlak Archipelago: Dahlak Kebir, Nora and Dehil. ... The Funj were an ethnic group in present day Sudan their origins are not clearly known but they moved into Nubia from south of the swamplands in the early sixteenth century, fleeing pressure from the Shilluk. ... Meanwhile the central highlands of Eritrea preserved their Orthodox Christian Aksumite heritage associated with Ethiopia, under the domain of Bahr Negash (Kingdom of the Sea) ruled by the Bahr Negus. The region was first referred to as Ma'ikele Bahr ("between the seas/rivers," i.e. the land between the Red Sea and the Mereb river),[5], renamed under Emperor Zara Yaqob as the domain of the Bahr Negash, called Midri Bahri (Tigrinya: "Sea land," though it included some areas like Shire on the other side of the Mereb, today in Ethiopia)[6] until the modern day, when its name was changed to Mereb Mellash (beyond the river Mereb) under the rule of Yohannes IV The locals referred to this area as Midri Bahri (Land of the Sea) as well as Hamassien as it was almost entirely composed of a province with that name (the Hamassien province later shrank in size during the 19th century to merely surround a ~50Km radius around the colonial capital Asmara, with other areas becoming Akkele Guzay and Seraye). Medri Bahri was an area distinguished by a very weak feudal structure, with virtually no serfdom and a strong and democratic landowning peasantry unique for the entire region at this time.[citation needed] Location of the Red Sea Image:Red Seaimage. ... The Mareb River (or Gash River), is the most northerly of the highland rivers of Ethiopia which flow to the northwest, and forms part of the border with Eritrea. ... Zara Ya`qob (Geez ዘርአ:ያዕቆብ zarʿā yāʿiqōb Seed of Jacob, Amh. ... Shire, also known as Inda Selassie, is a town in the Tigray region of Ethiopia, lying west of Aksum. ... Emperor Yohannes IV (c. ... Akkele Guzay was a province in the interior of Eritrea. ... The culmination of Islamic dominance in the region occurred in 1557, when an Ottoman invasion during the time of Suleiman I and under Ozdemir Pasha (who had declared the province of Habesh in 1555) took the port city of Massawa and the adjacent city of Arqiqo, even taking Debarwa, then capital of the local Ethiopian ruler Bahr negus Yeshaq (ruler of Midri Bahri). They administered this area as the province of Habesh. Yeshaq rallied his peasants and recaptured Debarwa, taking all the gold the invaders had piled within. In 1560 Yeshaq, disillusioned with the new Emperor of Ethiopia, revolted with Ottoman support but pledged his support again with the crowning of Emperor Sarsa Dengel. However, not long after, Yeshaq revolted once again with Ottoman support but was defeated once and for all in 1578, leaving the Ottomans with domain over Massawa (an important port and the primary one used by Ethiopia), Arqiqo and some of the nearby coastal environs, which were soon transfered to the controll of Beja Na'ibs (deputies). Events Spain is effectively bankrupt. ... Imperial motto (Ottoman Turkish) دولت ابد مدت Devlet-i Ebed-müddet (The Eternal State) The Ottoman Empire at the height of its power (1683) Official language Ottoman Turkish Capital Söğüt (1299-1326), Bursa (1326-1365), Edirne (1365-1453), Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) (1453-1922) Imperial anthem Ottoman imperial anthem Sovereigns Padishah... Suleiman the Magnificent Suleiman I (November 6, 1494 – September 5/6, 1566); in Turkish Süleyman , (nicknamed the Magnificent in Europe and the Lawgiver in the Islamic World, in Turkish Kanuni) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1520 to 1566 and successor to Selim I. He was... Habesh is the Arabic name for the people from central and northern Ethiopia and Eritrea (previously known as the land of Al Habashat and which still serves as the word for Ethiopia in some Arabic countries, while Habeshistan is the equivalent for the same in Turkish). ... Massawa in the 19th century Massawa or Mitsiwa (15° 36′ 33″ N 39° 26′ 43″ E) is a port on the Red Sea coast of Eritrea. ... Arkiko (alternately Archigo, Hirgigo, Hargigo, or Harkiko) is an island in the Red Sea and part of the Northern Red Sea Zone region of modern Eritrea. ... Debarwa is a market town with a population of about 25 000 in central Eritrea, about 25 km south of the capital Asmara. ... Bahr negus Yeshaq (died 1578) was a Bahr negus, or noble of medieval Ethiopia. ... Habesh is the Arabic name for the people from central and northern Ethiopia and Eritrea (previously known as the land of Al Habashat and which still serves as the word for Ethiopia in some Arabic countries, while Habeshistan is the equivalent for the same in Turkish). ... The Emperor (Geez ንጉሠ ነገሥት, , King of Kings) of Ethiopia was the hereditary ruler of Ethiopia until the abolition of the monarchy in 1975. ... Sarsa Dengel (Amharic Sprout of the Virgin) (1550 - 1597) was negus (throne name Malak Sagad I) (1563 - 1597) of Ethiopia, and a member of the Solomonid dynasty. ... Events January 31 - Battle of Gemblours - Spanish forces under Don John of Austria and Alexander Farnese defeat the Dutch. ... Massawa in the 19th century Massawa or Mitsiwa (15° 36′ 33″ N 39° 26′ 43″ E) is a port on the Red Sea coast of Eritrea. ... BEJA PEOPLE The Beja tribes are the indigenous inhabitants of the Eastern Region of the Sudan. ... The Ottoman state maintained control over much of the northern coastal areas for nearly 300 hundred years, leaving their possessions (the province of Habesh, to their Egyptian heirs in 1865 before being given to the Italians in 1885. In the southeast of Eritrea, the Sultanate of Awsa, an Afar sultanate, came to dominate the coastline after its founding in 1577, becoming vassal to the Emperor of Ethiopia under the reign of Susenyos. 1865 (MDCCCLXV) is a common year starting on Sunday. ... Susenyos (also Sissinios, as in Greek; throne name Malak Sagad III; 1572 - September 7, 1632) was (1607 - 1632) of Ethiopia. ... [edit] Italian colonization The boundaries of modern Eritrea and the entire region were established during the Scramble for Africa epoque between Italian, British and French colonialists as well as the landlocked lone African Empire of "Abyssinia", later renamed Ethiopia which found itself surrounded and its boundaries defined by said colonial powers. Cecil Rhodes: Cape-Cairo railway project. ... [edit] The beginnings of Italian presence in Assab The Italian presence came right with the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 which had made the Red Sea one of the most important waterways internationally. In November 1869 the Italian Roman Catholic priest Giuseppe Sapeto purchased the bay of Assab from the Afar Sultanate on behalf of the Shipping Company Rubattino. Rubatino was looking for a coaling and supply station for its ships on the way to India and the Far East. Ships moored at El Ballah during transit The Suez Canal (Arabic: ‎, translit: , French: ), west of the Sinai Peninsula, is a 163-km-long (101 miles) and, at its narrowest point, 300-m-wide (984 ft) maritime canal in Egypt between Port Said (BÅ«r SaÄ«d) on the Mediterranean Sea... 1869 (MDCCCLXIX) is a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ... Location of the Red Sea Image:Red Seaimage. ... The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. ... Assab (or Aseb) is a port in Eritrea on the west coast of the Red Sea. ... Flag of the Afar Sultanate The Afar Sultanate (also sometimes called the Awsa or Aussa sultanate) existed in eastern Ethiopia in the area bordering Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia. ... The Egyption Government protested right away the legality of this acquisition as it claimed souveranity over the area. The controversy remained unresolved until the Italian Government took over Assab as its first African colony posting a small detachment of carabinieri. Carabinieris Coat of arms The Carabinieri is the shortened (and common) name for the Arma dei Carabinieri, an Italian military corps of the gendarmerie type with police functions, which also serves as the Italian military police. ... [edit] Italian occupation of Massawa and formation of the colony Later, as the Egyptians retreated out of Sudan during the Mahdist rebellion, the British brokered an agreement whereby the Egyptians could retreat through Ethiopia, and in exchange they would allow the Emperor to occupy those lowland districts that he had disputed with the Turks and Egyptians. Emperor Yohannes IV believed this included Massawa, but instead, the port was handed by the Egyptians and the British to the Italians, who united it with the already colonised port of Assab to form a coastal Italian possession. The Italians took advantage of disorder in northern Ethiopia following the death of Emperor Yohannes IV to occupy the highlands, and established their new colony, henceforth known as Eritrea, and achieved recognition by Ethiopia's new Emperor Menelik II. The Mahdist War was a struggle for Sudanese libaration that failed in the late 19-century. ... Emperor Yohannes IV (c. ... Menelik II (August 17, 1844 - December 12, 1913), Conquering Lion of Judah, Elect of God, King of Kings of Ethiopia was negus negust (emperor) of Ethiopia from 1889 to his death. ... The Italian possession of maritime areas previously claimed by Abyssinia/Ethiopia was formalized in 1889 with the signing of the Treaty of Wuchale or Ucciale with Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia (r. 1889–1913) after the defeat of Italy by Ethiopia at the battle of Adua where Italy launched an effort to expand its possessions from Eritrea into the more fertile Abyssinian hinterland. Menelik would later renounce the Ucciale agreement as he had been tricked by the translators to agree to making the whole of Ethiopia into an Italian protectorate. However he was forced by circumstance to live by the tenets of Italian sovereignty over Eritrea. Italian administration of Eritrea brought improvements in the medical and agricultural sectors of Eritrean society. Furthermore, the Italians employed many Eritreans in public service (in particular in the police and public works departments) and oversaw the provision of urban amenities in Asmara and Massawa. In a region marked by cultural, linguistic, and religious diversity, a succession of Italian governors maintained a notable degree of unity and public order. Benito Mussolini’s rise to power in Italy in 1922 brought profound changes to the colonial government in Eritrea. The Fascists imposed harsh rule that stressed the political and racial superiority of Italians. Segregation was established, and Eritreans were demoted to menial positions in the public sector. Although Rome continued to implement agricultural reforms, these took place largely on farms owned by Italian colonists. The Fascist dictatorship regarded the colony as a strategic base for future aggrandizement and ruled accordingly. True to form, Italy used Eritrea as a base from which to launch its 1935–36 campaign to colonize Ethiopia. Treaty of Wuchale was a treaty signed by King Menelik of Shewa, later the Emperor of Ethiopia with Count Pietro Antonelli of Italy in the town of Wuchale on May 2, 1889. ... Menelik II (August 17, 1844 - December 12, 1913), Conquering Lion of Judah, Elect of God, King of Kings of Ethiopia was negus negust (emperor) of Ethiopia from 1889 to his death. ... Adowa, also known as Aduwa, Adwa or Adua, is a town in Ethiopia. ... Asmara Asmara (formerly Asmera) is the capital city and largest settlement in Eritrea, home to a population of around 579,000 people. ... Massawa in the 19th century Massawa or Mitsiwa (15° 36′ 33″ N 39° 26′ 43″ E) is a port on the Red Sea coast of Eritrea. ... Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (July 29, 1883 – April 28, 1945) was the Prime-Minister and dictator of Italy from 1922 until his overthrow in 1943. ... 1922 (MCMXXII) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler Fascism (in Italian, fascismo), capitalized, refers to the right-wing authoritarian political movement which ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943 under the leadership of Benito Mussolini. ... Nickname: The Eternal City Location of the city of Rome (yellow) within the Province of Rome (red) and region of Lazio (grey) Coordinates: Region Lazio Province Province of Rome Founded 8th century BC Mayor Walter Veltroni Area    - City 1,285 km²  (496. ... Eritrea was placed under British military administration after the Italian surrender in World War II. Combatants Major Allied powers: United Kingdom Soviet Union United States Republic of China and others Major Axis powers: Nazi Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Harry Truman Chiang Kai-Shek Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tojo Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead... [edit] British administration and federalization British forces defeated the Italian army in Eritrea in 1941 at the Battle of Keren and placed the colony under British military administration until Allied forces could determine its fate. Absent agreement among the Allies about the status of Eritrea, British administration continued for the remainder of World War II and into 1950. In the immediate postwar years, the British proposed that Eritrea be divided along religious lines and parceled off to Sudan and Ethiopia. The Soviet Union, anticipating a communist victory in the Italian polls, initially supported returning Eritrea to Italy under trusteeship or as a colony. Arab states, seeing Eritrea and its large Muslim population as an extension of the Arab world, sought the establishment of an independent state. In general, allies are people or groups that have joined an alliance and are working together to achieve some common purpose. ... 1950 (MCML) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will take you to calendar). ... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a political movement. ... Ethiopian ambition in the Horn was apparent in the expansionist ambition of its monarch when Haile Selassie claimed Italian Somaliland and Eritrea. He made this claim in a letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt, at the Paris Peace Conference and at the First Session of the United Nations.[7] In the United Nations the debate over the fate of the former Italian colonies continued. The British and Americans preferred to cede Eritrea to the Ethiopians as a reward for their support during World War II. "The United States and the United Kingdom have (similarly) agreed to support the cession to Ethiopia of all of Eritrea except the Western province. The United States has given assurances to Ethiopia in this regard."[8] The Independence Bloc of Eritrean parties consistently requested from the UN General Assembly that a referendum be held immediately to settle the Eritrean question of sovereignty. Combatants Major Allied powers: United Kingdom Soviet Union United States Republic of China and others Major Axis powers: Nazi Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Harry Truman Chiang Kai-Shek Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tojo Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead... In the absence of Allied agreement, and in the face of Eritrean demands for self-determination, a United Nations (UN) commission was dispatched to the former colony in February 1950 in the hope of finding a solution. The conclusions of the UN Enquiry into the wishes of the Eritrean people were manipulated by the British Administrators. It was also at this juncture that the US Ambassador to the UN, John Foster Dulles, "From the point of view of Justice, the opinions of the Eritrean people must receive consideration. Nevertheless the strategic interest of the United States in the Red Sea basin and the considerations of security and world peace make it necessary that the country has to be linked with our ally Ethiopia."[9] The Ambassador's word choice, along with the estimation of the British Ambassador in Addis Ababa, makes quite clear the fact that the Eritrea aspiration was for Independence.[7] The United Nations (UN) is an international organization whose stated aims are to facilitate co-operation in international law, international security, economic development, and social equity. ... John Foster Dulles John Foster Dulles (February 2, 1888 – May 24, 1959) was an American statesman who served as Secretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1959. ... The commission proposed the establishment of some form of association with Ethiopia, and the UN General Assembly adopted that proposal along with a provision terminating British administration of Eritrea no later than September 15, 1952. The British, faced with a deadline for leaving, held elections on March 16, 1952, for a representative Assembly of 68 members, evenly divided between Christians and Muslims. This body in turn accepted a draft constitution put forward by the UN commissioner on July 10. On September 11, 1952, Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia (r. 1930–74) ratified the constitution. The Representative Assembly subsequently became the Eritrean Assembly. In 1952, the United Nations resolution to federate Eritrea with Ethiopia went into effect. 1952 (MCMLII) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will take you to calendar). ... The resolution ignored a sizable minority of Eritreans' wishes for independence, but guaranteed Eritreans some democratic rights and a measure of autonomy. Some scholars have contended that the issue was a religious issue, between the Muslim lowland population desiring independence while the highland Christian population desired a union with Ethiopia. Other scholars, including the former Attorney-General of Ethiopia, Bereket Habte Selassie, contend that, "religious tensions here and there...were exploited by the British, [but] most Eritreans (Christians and Moslems) were united in their goal of freedom and independence.[7] Almost immediately after the federation went into effect, however, these rights began to be abridged or violated. These pleas for Independence and referendum augered poorly for the US, Britain and Ethiopia as a confidential American estimate of Independence Party supports amounted to 75% of Eritrea.[10] The details of Eritrea’s association with Ethiopia were established by the UN General Assembly resolution of September 15, 1952. It called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to be linked through a loose federal structure under the sovereignty of the Emperor. Eritrea was to have its own administrative and judicial structure, its own flag, and control over its domestic affairs, including police, local administration, and taxation.[7] The federal government, which for all intents and purposes was the existing imperial government, was to control foreign affairs (including commerce), defense, finance, and transportation. As a result of a long history of a strong landowning peasantry and the virtual absence of serfdom in most parts of Eritrea, the bulk of Eritreans had developed a distinct sense of cultural identity and superiority vis-à-vis Ethiopians. This combined with the introduction of modern democracy into Eritrea by the British administration gave Eritreans a desire for political freedoms alien to Ethiopian political tradition. From the start of the federation, however, Haile Selassie attempted to undercut Eritrea’s independent status, a policy that alienated many Eritreans. The emperor pressured Eritrea’s elected chief executive to resign, made Amharic the official language in place of Arabic and Tigrinya, terminated the use of the Eritrean flag, imposed censorship, and moved many businesses out of Eritrea. Finally, in 1962 Haile Selassie pressured the Eritrean Assembly to abolish the federation and join the Imperial Ethiopian fold, much to the dismay of those in Eritrea who favored a more liberal political order. United Nations General Assembly The United Nations General Assembly is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations. ... [edit] Fight for independence Main article: Eritrean War of Independence Militant opposition to the incorporation of Eritrea into Ethiopia had begun in 1958 with the founding of the Eritrean Liberation Movement (ELM), an organization made up mainly of students, intellectuals, and urban wage laborers. The ELM, under the leadership of Hamid Idris Awate, engaged in clandestine political activities intended to cultivate resistance to the centralizing policies of the imperial Ethiopian state. By 1962, however, the ELM had been discovered and destroyed by imperial authorities. The Eritrean War of Independence started in 1962 when Emperor Haile Sellassie of Ethiopia unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and annexed the country. ... 1958 (MCMLVIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... In 1962, Emperor Haile Selassie unilaterally dissolved the Eritrean parliament and annexed the country, sparking the Eritrean fight for independence. This fight continued after Haile Sellassie was ousted in a coup in 1974. The new Ethiopian Government, called the Derg, was a Marxist military junta led by strongman Mengistu Haile Mariam. 1962 (MCMLXII) was a common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar). ... Haile Selassie Haile Selassie (Power of Trinity) (July 23, 1892 – August 27, 1975) was the last Emperor (1930–1936; 1941–1974) of Ethiopia, and is a religious symbol in the Rastafarian movement. ... 1974 (MCMLXXIV) was a common year starting on Tuesday. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Marxism is the political practice and social theory based on the works of Karl Marx, a 19th century philosopher, economist, journalist, and revolutionary, along with Friedrich Engels. ... A military dictatorship is a form of government wherein the political power resides with the military; it is similar but not identical to a stratocracy, a state ruled directly by the military. ... {{For the athletic meaning, see strength athlete}} A strongman is a political leader who rules by force and runs an authoritarian regime. ... Mengistu Haile Mariam (born 1937) was the head of state of Ethiopia from 1977 to 1991. ... During the 1960s, the Eritrean independence struggle was led by the Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF). In 1960 Eritrean exiles in Cairo founded the Eritrean Liberation Front. In contrast to the ELM, from the outset the ELF was bent on waging armed struggle on behalf of Eritrean independence. The ELF was composed mainly of Eritrean Muslims from the rural lowlands on the western edge of the territory. In 1961 the ELF's political character was vague, but radical Arab states such as Syria and Iraq sympathized with Eritrea as a predominantly Muslim region struggling to escape Ethiopian oppression and imperial domination. These two countries therefore supplied military and financial assistance to the ELF. The 1960s decade refers to the years from 1960 to 1969, inclusive. ... Wikipedia does not yet have a page called Eritrean Liberation Front. ... Cairos location in Egypt Coordinates: Governor Dr. Abdul Azim Wazir Area    - City 210 km²  - Metro 1,492 km² Population    - City (2005) 7,438,376  - Density 35,420/km²  - Urban 10,834,495  - Metro 15,200,000 Time zone EET (UTC+2) EEST (UTC+3) Cairo (Arabic: ‎ translit: ), It comes... The ELF initiated military operations in 1961 and intensified its activities in response to the dissolution of the federation in 1962. By 1967 the ELF had gained considerable support among peasants, particularly in Eritrea's north and west, and around the port city of Massawa. Haile Selassie attempted to calm the growing unrest by visiting Eritrea and assuring its inhabitants that they would be treated as equals under the new arrangements. Although he doled out offices, money, and titles mainly to Christian highlanders in the hope of co-opting would-be Eritrean opponents in early 1967, the imperial secret police of Ethiopia also set up a wide network of informants in Eritrea and conducted disapearances, intimidations and assassinations among the same populace driving several prominent political figures into exile. Imperial police fired live ammunition killing scores of youngesters during several student demonstrations in Asmara in this time. The imperial army also actively perpetrated massacres and outright genocide on Muslim lowland settlements up until the ousting of the Emperor by a communist uprising in Ethiopia in 1974. 1967 (MCMLXVII) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar (the link is to a full 1967 calendar). ... Massawa in the 19th century Massawa or Mitsiwa (15° 36′ 33″ N 39° 26′ 43″ E) is a port on the Red Sea coast of Eritrea. ... By 1971 ELF activity had become enough of a threat that the emperor had declared martial law in Eritrea and had deployed roughly half his army to contain the struggle. Internal disputes over strategy and tactics, however, eventually led to the ELF's fragmentation and the founding in 1972 of another group, the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF). The leadership of this multiethnic movement came to be dominated by leftist, Christian dissidents who spoke Tigrinya, Eritrea's predominant language. Sporadic armed conflict ensued between the two groups from 1972 to 1974, even as they fought Ethiopian forces. By the late 1970s, the EPLF had become the dominant armed Eritrean group fighting against the Ethiopian Government, and Isaias Afewerki had emerged as its leader. Much of the material used to combat Ethiopia was captured from the Ethiopian Army. Martial law is the system of rules that takes effect (usually after a formal declaration) when a military authority takes control of the normal administration of justice. ... The Eritrean Peoples Liberation Front (EPLF) was an armed organization that fought for the independence of Eritrea from Ethiopia. ... The 1970s decade refers to the years from 1970 to 1979, inclusive. ... U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld and Eritrean President Isaias Afewerki shake hands in Eritrea Isaias Afewerki (born 2 February 1945) is the first president of Eritrea. ... By 1977, the EPLF was poised to drive the Ethiopians out of Eritrea. That same year, however, a massive airlift of Soviet arms to Ethiopia enabled the Ethiopian Army to regain the initiative and forced the EPLF to retreat to the bush. Between 1978 and 1986, the Derg launched eight major offensives against the independence movement -- all failed. In 1988, the EPLF captured Afabet, headquarters of the Ethiopian Army in northeastern Eritrea, putting approximately a third of the Ethiopian Army out of action, prompting the Ethiopian Army to withdraw from its garrisons in Eritrea's western lowlands. EPLF fighters then moved into position around Keren, Eritrea's second-largest city. Meanwhile, other dissident movements were making headway throughout Ethiopia. At the end of the 1980s, the Soviet Union informed Mengistu that it would not be renewing its defense and cooperation agreement. With the withdrawal of Soviet support and supplies, the Ethiopian Army's morale plummeted, and the EPLF -- along with other Ethiopian rebel forces -- began to advance on Ethiopian positions. For the album by Ash, see 1977 (album). ... Motto: Пролетарии всех стран, соединяйтесь! (Transliterated: Proletarii vsekh stran, soedinyaytes!) (Russian: Workers of the world, unite!) Anthem: The Internationale (1922-1944) Hymn of the Soviet Union (1944-1991) Capital Moscow Largest city Moscow None; Russian de facto Government Federation of Soviet Republics  - Last President Mikhail Gorbachev  - Last Premier Ivan Silayev Establishment October Revolution   - Declared... 1978 (MCMLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Sunday. ... 1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 1988 (MCMLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Afabet is a town in northern Eritrea. ... Keren is the third largest city in Eritrea, lying north west of Asmara, with a population of around 75,000 people. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... [edit] Establishing an independent country The United States played a facilitative role in the peace talks in Washington during the months leading up to the May 1991 fall of the Mengistu regime. In mid-May, Mengistu resigned as head of the Ethiopian Government and went into exile in Zimbabwe, leaving a caretaker government in Addis Ababa. Having defeated the Ethiopian forces in Eritrea, EPLF troops took control of their homeland. Later that month, the United States chaired talks in London to formalize the end of the war. These talks were attended by the four major combatant groups, including the EPLF. Aerial photo (looking NW) of the Washington Monument and the White House in Washington, DC. Washington, D.C., officially the District of Columbia (also known as D.C.; Washington; the Nations Capital; the District; and, historically, the Federal City) is the capital city and administrative district of the United... 1991 (MCMXCI) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Map of Ethiopia highlighting Addis Ababa (in red). ... London (pronounced ) is the capital city of England and the United Kingdom. ... A high-level U.S. delegation also was present in Addis Ababa for the July 1-5, 1991 conference that established a transitional government in Ethiopia. The EPLF attended the July conference as an observer and held talks with the new transitional government regarding Eritrea's relationship to Ethiopia. The outcome of those talks was an agreement in which the Ethiopians recognized the right of the Eritreans to hold a referendum on independence. Although some EPLF cadres at one time espoused a Marxist ideology, Soviet support for Mengistu had cooled their ardor. The fall of communist regimes in the former Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc convinced them it was a failed system. The EPLF now says it is committed to establishing a democratic form of government and a free-market economy in Eritrea. The United States agreed to provide assistance to both Ethiopia and Eritrea, conditional on continued progress toward democracy and human rights. This article is about communism as a form of society and as a political movement. ... A map of the Eastern Bloc. ... In May 1991, the EPLF established the Provisional Government of Eritrea (PGE) to administer Eritrean affairs until a referendum was held on independence and a permanent government established. EPLF leader Isaias became the head of the PGE, and the EPLF Central Committee served as its legislative body. On April 23-25, 1993, Eritreans voted overwhelmingly for independence from Ethiopia in a UN-monitored free and fair referendum. The Eritrean authorities declared Eritrea an independent state on April 27. The government was reorganized and after a national, freely contested election, the National Assembly, which chose Isaias as President of the PGE, was expanded to include both EPLF and non-EPLF members. The EPLF reorganized itself as a political party, the People's Front for Democracy and Justice (PFDJ), and is now in the process of drafting a new constitution and setting up a permanent government. 1993 (MCMXCIII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and marked the Beginning of the International Decade to Combat Racism and Racial Discrimination (1993-2003). ... April 27 is the 117th day of the year (118th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 248 days remaining. ... The Peoples Front for Democracy and Justice is the only legal Eritrean political party. ... [edit] After independence In July 1996 the Eritrean Constitution was ratified, but it has yet to be implemented[citation needed]. In 1998, a border dispute with Ethiopia led to the Eritrean-Ethiopian War, a which killed thousands of soldiers from both countries and left Eritrea with significant economic and social stresses, including massive population displacement, reduced economic development, and one of Africa's more severe landmine problems. The border war ended in 2000 with a negotiated agreement known as the Algiers Agreement. One of the terms of the agreement was the establishment of a UN peacekeeping operation, known as the United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE); over 4,000 UN peacekeepers remain as of April 2006. Another term of the Algiers agreement was the final demarcation of the disputed border area between Eritrea and Ethiopia. After extensive study, an independent, UN-associated Eritrean-Ethiopian Boundary Commission (EEBC) issued a final border ruling in 2003, but its decision was rejected by Ethiopia. As of 2006, the border question remains in dispute, while a tentative peace remains in place. Combatants Eritrea Ethiopia Commanders Unknown Unknown Casualties 19,000 123,000[1] [2] The Eritrean-Ethiopian War took place from May 1998 to June 2000 between Ethiopia and Eritrea. ... Land Mine board near the end of a game This article is about the drinking game. ... This article is about the year 2000. ... The Algiers Agreement was an agreement between the governments of Eritrea and Ethiopia signed on 12 December 2000 at Algiers, Algeria to end the Ethiopia-Eritrea War, a border war fought by the two countries from 1998 to 2002. ... The United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE) was originally formed to monitor a ceasefire in the border war that began in 1998 between Ethiopia and Eritrea. ... 2006 is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... [edit] References ^ (2002) McGraw Hill Encyclopedia of Science and Technology, 9th edition, The McGraw Hill Companies Inc.. ISBN 0079136656. ^ Walter, Robert C., Richard T. Buffler, J. Henrich Bruggemann,, Mireille M. M. Guillaume, Seife M. Berhe, Berhane Negassi, Yoseph Libsekal, Hai Cheng11, R. Lawrence Edwards, Rudo von Cosel, Didier Néraudeau and Mario Gagnon (2000-05-04). Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the last interglacial. Nature 405: 65-69. DOI:10.1038/35011048. Retrieved on 2006-10-02. ^ Out of Africa (1999-09-10). Retrieved on 2006-10-02. ^ Pleistocene Park (1999-09-08). Retrieved on 2006-10-02. ^ Taddesse Tamrat, Church and State in Ethiopia (1270-1527) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972), p.74. ^ Daniel Kendie, The Five Dimensions of the Eritrean Conflict 1941 – 2004: Deciphering the Geo-Political Puzzle. United States of America: Signature Book Printing, Inc., 2005, pp.17-8. ^ a b c d Habte Selassie, Bereket (1989). Eritrea and the United Nations. Red Sea Press. ISBN 0-932415-12-1. ^ Top Secret Memorandum of 1949-03-05, written with the UN Third Session in view, from Mr. Rusk to the Secretary of State. ^ Heiden, Linda (June 1978 1879). "The Eritrean Struggle for Independence". Monthly Review 30 (2): 15. ^ Department of State, Incoming Telegram, received 1949-08-22, From Addis Ababa, signed MERREL, to Secretary of State, No. 171, 1949-08-19 History of Africa Algeria · Angola · Benin · Botswana · Burkina Faso · Burundi · Cameroon · Cape Verde · Central African Republic · Chad · Comoros · Democratic Republic of the Congo · Republic of the Congo · Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) · Djibouti · Egypt · Equatorial Guinea · Eritrea · Ethiopia · Gabon · The Gambia · Ghana · Guinea · Guinea-Bissau · Kenya · Lesotho · Liberia · Libya · Madagascar · Malawi · Mali · Mauritania · Mauritius · Morocco · Mozambique · Namibia · Niger · Nigeria · Rwanda · São Tomé and Príncipe · Senegal · Seychelles · Sierra Leone · Somalia · South Africa · Sudan · Swaziland · Tanzania · Togo · Tunisia · Uganda · Western Sahara (Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic) · Zambia · Zimbabwe Dependencies and other territories British Indian Ocean Territory · Canary Islands · Ceuta · Melilla · Madeira Islands · Mayotte · Réunion · St. Helena This article is about the year 2000. ... May 4 is the 124th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (125th in leap years). ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a permanent identifier (permalink) given to a World Wide Web file or other Internet document so that if its Internet address changes, users will be redirected to its new address. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 2 is the 275th day (276th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 90 days remaining. ... 1999 (MCMXCIX) was a common year starting on Friday, and was designated the International Year of Old Farts by the Sometimes-United Nations. ... September 10 is the 253rd day of the year (254th in leap years). ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 2 is the 275th day (276th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 90 days remaining. ... 1999 (MCMXCIX) was a common year starting on Friday, and was designated the International Year of Old Farts by the Sometimes-United Nations. ... September 8 is the 251st day of the year (252nd in leap years). ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... October 2 is the 275th day (276th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 90 days remaining. ... 1949 (MCMXLIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (the link is to a full 1949 calendar). ... March 5 is the 64th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (65th in leap years). ... 1949 (MCMXLIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (the link is to a full 1949 calendar). ... August 22 is the 234th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (235th in leap years), with 131 days remaining. ... 1949 (MCMXLIX) was a common year starting on Saturday (the link is to a full 1949 calendar). ... August 19 is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... The following is an outline of African history, followed by a list of articles about the history of particular places in Africa. ... Children of the 1983-1987 revolution Until the end of the 19th century, the history of Burkina Faso was dominated by the empire-building Mossi, who are believed to have come up to their present location from Northern Ghana, (where there exists the ethnically related Dagomba group). ... The known history of Cape Verde dates from the first Portuguese explorers, who arrived in the fifteenth century. ... The Central African Republic is believed to have been settled from at least the 7th century on by overlapping empires, including the Kanem-Bornu, Ouaddai, Baguirmi, and Dafour groups based around Lake Chad region and along Upper Nile. ... // Early history Main article: Early Congolese history The area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo was populated as early as 10,000 years ago and settled in the 7th and 8th centuries A.D. by Bantus from present-day Nigeria. ... This is the history of Côte dIvoire. ... The first inhabitants of the region that is now Equatorial Guinea are believed to have been Pygmies, of whom only isolated pockets remain in northern Rio Muni. ... The islands of São Tomé and Príncipe were uninhabited before the arrival of the Portuguese sometime in 1469, 1470, or 1471. ... // Early history and slavery European contacts with Sierra Leone were among the first in West Africa. ... The history of South Africa is viewed differently by various scholars and by its various population groups because South Africa is a multicultural country. ... // Background The Western Sahara area has never formed a state in the modern sense of the word. ... Motto: In tutela nostra Limuria (Latin:Limuria is in our charge) Anthem: God Save the Queen Capital (largest city) n/a English Government Overseas territory of the United Kingdom  - Commissioner Tony Crombie  - Administrator Tony Humphries Created 1965  Area  - Total 60 km² (n/a)  sq mi   - Water (%) 0 Population  - Density 58. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Ceuta is a Spanish exclave in North Africa, located on the northernmost tip of Morocco, on the Mediterranean coast near the Straits of Gibraltar. ... Area  â€“ Total    20 km² (8 mi²) Population  â€“ Total (2005)  â€“ Density  65,488  3274. ... ... Uninhabited when first discovered by the Portuguese in 1502, who named it for Helena of Constantinople, the island now known as Saint Helena was garrisoned by the British during the 17th century. ... Categories: Articles lacking sources | Articles with unsourced statements | History of Eritrea

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	Eritrea: History — FactMonster.com (994 words) Eritrea formed part of the ancient Ethiopian kingdom of Aksum until the 7th cent. In November the United Nations called for Eritrea and Ethiopia to reduce their forces along the border and for Eritrea to end restrictions on UN forces, and expressed concern over Ethiopia's failure to finalize the border; UN sanctions were threatened for noncompliance. Eritrea rejected the ultimatum and in Dec., 2005, forced those UN forces from the United States, Canada, Europe, and Russia to withdraw. Eritrea (1043 words) Eritrea had been ruled by many powers before it was colonised by the Italians in 1885. Eritrea is located in the Horn of Africa and is bordered on the northeast and east by the Red Sea. Eritrea's two main ethnic groups are the Tigrigna, which forms about half of the population, and the Tigre and Kunama, which amount to circa 40%.
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