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Non-Native American nations' claims over North America, 1750-2008.

Political evolution of Central America and the Caribbean since 1700.

European nations’ control over South America, 1700 to present

The history of the Americas is the collective history of North and South America, including Central America and the Caribbean. It begins with people migrating to these areas from Asia during the height of an Ice Age. These groups are generally believed to have been isolated from peoples of the "Old World" until the coming of Europeans in the 10th and 15th centuries. North American redirects here. ... South America South America is a continent crossed by the equator, with most of its area in the Southern Hemisphere. ... For other uses, see Central America (disambiguation). ... West Indies redirects here. ... Variations in CO2, temperature and dust from the Vostok ice core over the last 400 000 years For the animated movie, see Ice Age (movie). ... For other uses, see Old World (disambiguation). ...

The ancestors of today's Native Americans were hunter-gatherers who migrated into North America. The most popular theory asserts that migrants came to the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge, Beringia, the land mass covered by the cold ocean waters in the Bering Strait. Small Paleo-Indian groups probably followed the mammoth and other prey animals. It is possible that groups of people may also have traveled into North America on shelf or sheet ice along the northern Pacific coast. Brazilian Indian chiefs The scope of this indigenous peoples of the Americas article encompasses the definitions of indigenous peoples and the Americas as established in their respective articles. ... In anthropology, the hunter-gatherer way of life is that led by certain societies of the Neolithic Era based on the exploitation of wild plants and animals. ... Nautical chart of Bering Strait, site of former land bridge between Asia and North America The Bering land bridge, also known as Beringia, was a land bridge roughly 1,000 miles (1,600 km) north to south at its greatest extent, which joined present-day Alaska and eastern Siberia at... Nautical chart of Bering Strait, site of former land bridge between Asia and North America Shrinking of the Bering land bridge The Bering land bridge was a land bridge roughly 1,000 miles (1,600 km) north to south at its greatest extent, which joined present-day Alaska and eastern... Satellite photo of the Bering Strait Photo across the Bering Strait Nautical chart of the Bering Strait The Bering Strait (Russian: ) is a sea strait between Cape Dezhnev, Russia, the easternmost point (169°43 W) of the Asian continent and Cape Prince of Wales, Alaska, the westernmost point (168°05... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... This article is about the genus Mammuthus. ...

Cultural traits brought by the first immigrants later evolved and spawned such cultures as Iroquois on North America and Pirahã of South America. These cultures later developed into civilizations. In many cases, these cultures expanded at a later date than their Old World counterparts. Cultures that may be considered advanced or civilized include: Cahokia, Zapotec, Toltecs, Olmec, Maya, Aztecs, Purepecha, Chimor, and the Inca. For other uses, see Iroquois (disambiguation). ... The Pirahã people are an indigenous hunter-gatherer tribe of Amazon natives, who mainly live on the banks of the Maici River in Brazil. ... Central New York City. ... Cahokia is the site of an ancient Native American city near Collinsville, Illinois, across the Mississippi River from St. ... Extent of the Zapotec civilization The Zapotec civilization was an indigenous pre-Columbian civilization that flourished in the Valley of Oaxaca of southern Mesoamerica. ... The Atlantes – columns in the form of Toltec warriors in Tula. ... Monument 1, one of the four Olmec colossal heads at La Venta. ... Maya may refer to: // The Maya, Native American peoples of southern Mexico and northern Central America Maya peoples, the contemporary indigenous peoples Maya civilization, their historical pre-Columbian civilization Mayan languages, the family of languages spoken by the Maya Yucatec Maya language, specific and most widespread Mayan language, frequently referred... The word Aztec is usually used as a historical term, although some contemporary Nahuatl speakers would consider themselves Aztecs. ... Tarascan men reeling cord for nets & making nets, 1899. ... Late Intermediate Period Cultures Chimu Piece - Imperial Epoch, 1300 A.D. to 1532 A.D.Larco Museum Collection Chimor (also Kingdom of Chimor) was the political grouping of the Chimú culture that ruled the northern coast of Peru, beginning around 850 AD and ending around 1470 AD. Chimor was the... For other meanings of Inca, see Inca (disambiguation). ...

Prehistory

The pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents. ...

Migration into the continents

The timeframe for the of arrival of the first group of people to enter the Americas has been subject to much debate. It is generally believed that the first migrants were Asian nomads who crossed the Bering Land Bridge to reach North America. For most of the 20th century, scientists considered the first culture in the Americas to be the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,500 years ago. There are several popular models of migration to the New World proposed by the anthropological community. ... For other uses, see Asia (disambiguation). ... Nautical chart of Bering Strait, site of former land bridge between Asia and North America The Bering land bridge, also known as Beringia, was a land bridge roughly 1,000 miles (1,600 km) north to south at its greatest extent, which joined present-day Alaska and eastern Siberia at... The Clovis culture (sometimes referred to as the Llano culture[1]) is a prehistoric Paleoindian culture that first appears in the archaeological record of North America around 11,500 rcbp radiocarbon years ago, at the end of the last glacial period. ...

Recent archaeological finds suggest multiple waves of migration, some of which have been tentatively dated to as early as 40,000 BCE. Evidence at the Monte Verde site in southern Chile indicates a human presence in southern South America by 12,500 BCE. Several other early Paleo-Indian artifacts have been found in both North and South America. Radiocarbon dating tests are still inconclusive on some archaeological sites identified as earlier than the Clovis remains. [1] [2] Monte Verde is an archaeological site in south-central Chile, which is suspected to date 12,500 years before present, making it one of the earliest inhabited sites in the Americas. ... Radiocarbon dating is a radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring isotope carbon-14 (14C) to determine the age of carbonaceous materials up to about 60,000 years. ...

Many theories hold that the Inuit and related peoples arrived separately and at a much later date, probably around the 5th or 6th century CE, moving across the glaciers from Siberia into Canada. For other uses, see Inuit (disambiguation). ... This article is about Siberia as a whole. ...

Archaic period

Several thousand years after the first migrations, the first complex civilizations arose as hunter-gatherers settled into semi-agricultural communities. Identifiable sedentary settlements began to emerge in the so-called Middle Archaic period around 6000 BCE. Particular archaeological cultures can be identified, with some of the classifications including the Paleo-Indian period, Archaic Period and Woodland Period. Paleo-Indians is an English term used to refer to the ancient peoples of America who were present at the end of the last Ice Age. ... In the sequence of North American cultural stages first proposed by Gordon Willey and Phillip Phillips in 1958, the Archaic stage was the second period of human occupation in the Americas, from around 8000 BC to 1000 BC although as its ending is defined by the adoption of sedentary farming... In archaeology, culture refers to either of two separate but allied concepts: An archaeological culture is a pattern of similar artefacts and features found within a specific area over a limited period of time. ... Paleo-Indians is an English term used to refer to the ancient peoples of America who were present at the end of the last Ice Age. ... The Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures lasted roughly from 1000 BCE to 1000 CE. The term Woodland was coined in the 1930s and refers to prehistoric sites between the Archaic period and the Mississippian cultures. ...

Civilizations

Civilizations were established long after migration. Several large, centralized civilizations developed in the Western Hemisphere : Norte Chico, Chavin, Nazca, Moche, Huari, Quitus, Cañaris, Chimu, Pachacamac, Tiahuanaco, Aymara and Inca in the Central Andes (Ecuador,Peru and Bolivia); Muisca in Colombia ; Olmecs, Toltecs, Mixtecs , Zapotecs, Purepecha, Aztecs and the Maya in southern North America). Central New York City. ... The geographical western hemisphere of Earth, highlighted in yellow. ... Norte Chico ranging over three river valleys north of present-day Lima: Supe, Fortaleza and Pativilca. ... Chav n is the name of a pre-Moche people in Peru Chav n is a parish belonging to the municipality of Viveiro, Spain. ... For the tectonic plate, see Nazca Plate. ... The Moche civilization (alternately, the Mochica culture, Early Chimu, Pre-Chimu, Proto-Chimu, etc. ... Middle Horizon The Huari (or Wari) was a Middle Horizon civilization that flourished in the southern Andes from about 500 to 1200 AD. The capital city is located near the modern city of Ayacucho, Peru. ... The Quitu were the aboriginal occupants of the now capital of Ecuador, Quito. ... Before the penetration of the Incas the present area of Cañar province in Ecuador was populated by the brave Cañaris, pleasant but fierce and combative people when he was feeling irresolute. ... The Chimú were the residents of Chimor with its capital at the city of Chan Chan in the Moche valley of Peru. ... The complex and extensive site (an estimated 5 km2 including a ca. ... Middle Horizon Tiwanaku (old spelling: Tiahuanaco) is an important Pre-Columbian archeological site in Bolivia. ... The Aymara are a native ethnic group in the Andes region of South America; about 2. ... For other meanings of Inca, see Inca (disambiguation). ... This article is about the mountain range in South America. ... For other uses, see Muska (disambiguation). ... Monument 1, one of the four Olmec colossal heads at La Venta. ... The Atlantes – columns in the form of Toltec warriors in Tula. ... Jade mask found in Tomb 7, Monte Alban, c. ... The Zapotec are an indigenous people of Mexico. ... Tarascan men reeling cord for nets & making nets, 1899. ... For other uses, see Aztec (disambiguation). ... This article is about the pre-Columbian Maya civilization. ... North American redirects here. ...

Cities of the Aztecs, Mayas, and Incas were as large and organized as the largest in the Old World, with an estimated population of 200,000 to 350,000 in Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec empire. The market established in the city was said to have been the largest ever seen by the conquistadors when they arrived. The capital of the Cahokians, Cahokia - located near modern East St. Louis, Illinois may have reached a population of over 20,000. At its peak, between the 12th and 13th centuries, Cahokia may have been the most populous city in North America. Monk's Mound, the major ceremonial center of Cahokia, remains the largest earthen construction of the prehistoric New World. Tenochtitlan, looking east. ... The word Aztec is usually used as a historical term, although some contemporary Nahuatl speakers would consider themselves Aztecs. ... A Conquistador (Spanish: []) (English: Conqueror) was a Spanish soldier, explorer and adventurer who took part in the gradual invasion and conquering of much of the Americas and Asia Pacific, bringing them under Spanish colonial rule between the 15th and 19th centuries. ... Cahokia is the site of an ancient Native American city near Collinsville, Illinois, across the Mississippi River from St. ... East St. ... Monks Mound is the largest Pre-Columbian earthwork in North America north of Mesoamerica. ...

These civilizations developed agriculture as well, breeding maize (corn) from having ears 2-5 cm in length to perhaps 10-15 cm in length. Potatoes, tomatoes, pumpkins, beans, avocados, and chocolate are now the most popular of the pre-Columbian agricultural products. The civilizations did not develop extensive livestock as there were few suitable species, although alpacas and llamas were domesticated for use as beasts of burden and sources of wool and meat in the Andes. By the 15th century CE, maize was being farmed in the Mississippi River Valley after introduction from Mexico. The course of further agricultural development was greatly altered by the arrival of Europeans. This article is about the maize plant. ... For other uses, see Potato (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Tomato (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Pumpkin (disambiguation). ... Green beans Bean is a common name for large plant seeds of several genera of Fabaceae (formerly Leguminosae) used for food or feed. ... Binomial name Mill. ... For other uses, see Chocolate (disambiguation). ... This article is about a breed of domesticated ungulates. ... For other uses, see Llama (disambiguation). ... This article is about the mountain range in South America. ... For the river in Canada, see Mississippi River (Ontario). ... This article deals with the European people as an ethnic group or ethnic groups. ...

North America

Cahokia

The history of North America is the study of the past, particularly the written record, oral histories, and traditions, passed down from generation to generation on the continent in the Earths northern hemisphere and (chiefly) western hemisphere. ... Political Evolution of Central America and the Caribbean from 1700 to present The history of Central America is the study of the past of the region known as Central America. ... Cahokia is the site of an ancient Native American city near Collinsville, Illinois, across the Mississippi River from St. ...

Oasisamerica

Pueblo people

The Pueblo people of what is now the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico, living conditions were that of large stone apartment like adobe structures. They live in Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, and possibly surrounding areas. It has been suggested that Pueblo be merged into this article or section. ... The Southwest could be defined as the states south, or for the most part west of the Mississippi River, with the qualification of a certain northern limit, such as the 37, or 38, or 39, or 40 degree north line. ... Renewal of the surface coating of an adobe wall in Chamisal, New Mexico Adobe is a natural building material composed of sand, sandy clay and straw or other organic materials, which is shaped into bricks using wooden frames and dried in the sun. ...

Aridoamerica

Chichimeca

Chichimeca was the name that the Mexica (Aztecs) generically applied to a wide range of semi-nomadic peoples who inhabited the north of modern-day Mexico, and carried the same sense as the European term "barbarian". The name was adopted with a pejorative tone by the Spaniards when referring especially to the semi-nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples of northern Mexico. The Chichimeca are a group of nomads in northern Mexico. ... For other uses, see Aztec (disambiguation). ... For the 2006 historical epic set in Kazakhstan, see Nomad (2006 film). ... For other uses, see Barbarian (disambiguation). ... In anthropology, the hunter-gatherer way of life is that led by certain societies of the Neolithic Era based on the exploitation of wild plants and animals. ...

Haudenosaune

For other uses, see Iroquois (disambiguation). ...

Mesoamerica

Zapotec

The Zapotec emerged around 1500 years BCE. Their writing system influenced the later Olmec. They left behind the great city Monte Alban. This article is about the culture area. ... The Zapotec are an indigenous people of Mexico. ... Monte Albán is a large archeological site in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico. ...

Olmec

The Olmec civilization emerged around 1200 BCE in Mesoamerica and ended around 400 BCE. Olmec art and concepts influenced surrounding cultures after their downfall. This civilization was thought to be the first in America to develop a writing system. After the Olmecs abandoned their cities for unknown reasons, the Maya, Zapotec and Teotihuacan arose. Monument 1, one of the four Olmec colossal heads at La Venta. ... This article is about the culture area. ...

Purepecha

The Purepecha civilization emerged around 1000 AD in Mesoamerica . They flourished from 1100 AD to 1530 AD. They continue to live on in the state of Michaocan. Fierce warriors, they were never conquered and in their glory years, successfully sealed off huge areas from Aztec domination. Tarascan men reeling cord for nets & making nets, 1899. ... This article is about the culture area. ...

Maya

Maya history spans 3,000 years. The Maya may have collapsed due to changing climate in the end of the 10th century. This article is about the pre-Columbian Maya civilization. ...

Toltec

The Toltec were a nomadic people, dating from the 10th - 12th century, whose language was also spoken by the Aztecs. The Atlantes – columns in the form of Toltec warriors in Tula. ...

Teotihuacan

Teotihuacan (4th century BCE - 7/8th century CE) was both a city, and an empire of the same name, which, at its zenith between 150 and the 5th century, covered most of Mesoamerica. Teotihuacan was the largest Pre-Columbian known city in the Americas, and the name Teotihuacan is used to refer to the civilization this city dominated, which at its greatest extent included most of Mesoamerica. ...

Aztec

The Aztec having started to build their empire around 14th century found their civilization abruptly ended by the Spanish conquistadors. They lived in Mesoamerica, and surrounding lands. Their capital city Tenochtitlan was one of the largest cities of all time. For other uses, see Aztec (disambiguation). ...

South America

Norte Chico

The oldest known civilization of the Americas was established in the Norte Chico region of modern Peru. Complex society emerged in the group of coastal valleys, between 3000 and 1800 BCE. The Quipu, a distinctive recording device among Andean civilizations, apparently dates from the era of Norte Chico's prominence. European nations’ control over South America, 1700 to present The history of South America is the study of the past, particularly the written record, oral histories, and traditions, passed down from generation to generation on the continent in the Earths southern hemisphere and (chiefly) western hemisphere. ... Norte Chico ranging over three river valleys north of present-day Lima: Supe, Fortaleza and Pativilca. ... Inca Quipu. ...

Chavín

The Chavín established a trade network and developed agriculture by as early as (or late compared to the Old World) 900 BCE according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. Chavín civilization spanned from 900 BCE to 300 BCE. Chavin refers to two different things: Chavín is the name of a pre-Moche people in Peru Chavín is a parish belonging to the municipality of Viveiro, Galiza,Spain. ...

Inca

Holding their capital at the great city of Cusco, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tahuantinsuyu, or "the land of the four regions," in Quechua, the Inca culture was highly distinct and developed. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. There is evidence of excellent metalwork and even successful brain surgery in Inca civilization. This article is the city in Peru. ... For other meanings of Inca, see Inca (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Quechuan languages. ... In agriculture, a terrace is a levelled section of a hilly cultivated area, designed to slow or prevent the rapid run-off of irrigation water. ... Neurosurgery is the surgical discipline focused on treating the central and peripheral nervous system. ...

European rediscovery and colonization

Thousands of years after the Indians arrived, the continent was rediscovered by Europeans. Initially the Vikings established a short-lived settlement in Newfoundland, now known as L'Anse aux Meadows. Speculations exist about other Old World discoveries of the New World, but none of these are considered proven. For further information, see Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact. Territories in the Americas colonized or claimed by a European great power in 1750. ... British colonization of the Americas (including colonization under the Kingdom of England before the 1707 Acts of Union created the Kingdom of Great Britain) began in the late 16th century, before reaching its peak after colonies were established throughout the Americas, and a protectorate was established in Hawaii. ... The Duchy of Courland was the smallest nation to colonize the Americas with a short-lived colony in Tobago during the 1654–1659, and again 1660–1689. ... Denmark had a colonial empire from the 18th century until the 20th. ... During the 17th century, Dutch traders established trade posts and plantations throughout the Americas; actual colonization, with Dutch settling in the new lands was not as common as with settlements of other European nations. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... In this map of German colonies, yellow marks Klein-Venedig and red the Prussia colonies, some of them in the Caribbean. ... The Vikings, or Norsemen, explored and settled areas of the North Atlantic, including the northeast fringes of North America, beginning in the 10th century. ... Portugal was the leading country in the European exploration of the world in the 15th century. ... Russian colonization of the Americas proceeded in several places. ... Scottish colonization of the Americas consisted of a number of failed or abandoned settlements in North America, a colony at Darien, Panama and a number of wholly or largely Scottish settlements made as part of Great Britain. ... The Spanish colonization of the Americas was Spains conquest, settlement, and rule over much of the western hemisphere from 1492-1898. ... The Swedish colonization of the Americas consisted of a 17th century settlement on the Delaware River in Delaware, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland, and possessions in the Caribbean during the 18th and 19th century. ... Decolonization of the Americas refers to the process by which the countries in North America and South America gained their independence. ... Territories in the Americas colonized or claimed by a European great power in 1750. ... This article deals with the European people as an ethnic group or ethnic groups. ... The name Viking is a loan from the native Scandinavian term for the Norse seafaring warriors who raided the coasts of Scandinavia, Europe and the British Isles from the late 8th century to the 11th century, the period of European history referred to as the Viking Age. ... Newfoundland —   IPA: [nuw fÉ™n lænd] (French: , Irish: ) is a large island off the east coast of North America, and the most populous part of the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. ... LAnse aux Meadows (from the French LAnse-aux-Méduses or Jellyfish Cove) is a site on the northernmost tip of the island of Newfoundland, in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, where the remains of a Viking village were discovered in 1960 by the Norwegian explorer Helge Ingstad and... Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contacts were interactions between the indigenous peoples of the Americas and peoples of other continents – Europe, Africa, Asia, or Oceania – before the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492. ...

The voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1492 led to extensive European colonization of the Americas and the genocide of its inhabitants.^[1][2] Columbus came at a time in which many technical developments in sailing techniques and communication made it possible to report his voyages easily and to spread word of them throughout western Europe. It was also a time of growing economic rivalries that led to a competition for the establishment of colonies. Christopher Columbus (1451 – May 20, 1506) was a navigator, colonizer, and explorer and one of the first Europeans to explore the Americas after the Vikings. ... Territories in the Americas colonized or claimed by a European great power in 1750. ... For other uses, see Genocide (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Native Americans (disambiguation). ...

The mass death of the Native Americans from slavery, disease and war led to severe changes in the population and ethnic identity of America's inhabitants. The slave labor of Americans killed by European incursions was replaced by that of sub-Saharan African peoples through the slave trade. Native populations became increasingly minor as the European and African slave populations grew rapidly. The dominance of White Americans continued through the period of widespread independence from European rule, begun in the late 18th century by the United States. For other uses, see Native Americans (disambiguation). ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... For specific articles on the slave trade, see: Atlantic slave trade Slave trade in the ancient world Slave trade in the Middle Ages Slave trade in Islamic World Slave trade in Africa Slave trade in the Americas Slave trade and the British Empire Swedish slave trade Abolitionism Categories: Disambiguation | Slavery... The term white American (often used interchangeably and incorrectly with Caucasian American[2] and within the United States simply white[3]) is an umbrella term that refers to people of European descent residing in the United States. ...

There is a substantial difference though, between the English and Spanish areas and models of colonization. While Native Americans suffered death, slavery and exploitation throughout the Americas and were virtually exterminated almost everywhere, Native Americans, along with Mestizos, now make up the majority of the population in many Central and South American countries.^{[citation needed]} More importantly, the Southern parts were much more populated before European colonization (50m) compared to the North (2m)^{[citation needed]}. For other uses, see England (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Colonialism. ... Mestizo (Brazil Portuguese. ...

The number of Native Americans is increasing now in the U.S. by actual population growth, changing enrollment laws, and from the immigration from Latin America, especially from Mexico, though the term being applied to them is Hispanic.

Modern history

Colonial period

17th to 19th century colonies in the New World: For colonies not part of the 13 colonies see European colonization of the Americas or British colonization of the Americas. ...

• British North America / Thirteen Colonies
• Danish West Indies
• New Netherland
• New France
• Colonial Brazil (1500 – 1815)
• Spanish Main
• Spanish West Indies
• Captaincy General of Guatemala
• Viceroyalty of Peru (1542 – 1824)

British North America consisted of the loyalist colonies and territories (i. ... In 1775, the British claimed authority over the red and pink areas on this map and Spain ruled the orange. ... The Danish West Indies or Danish Antilles, (DWI, Dansk Vest Indien) are a former colony of Denmark in the Caribbean, now known as the U.S. Virgin Islands. ... States which were part of New Netherlands Map based on Adriaen Blocks 1614 expedition to New Netherland, featuring the first use of the name. ... Capital Quebec Language(s) French Religion Roman Catholicism Government Monarchy King See List of French monarchs Governor See list of Governors Legislature Sovereign Council of New France Historical era Ancien Régime in France  - Royal Control 1655  - Articles of Capitulation of Quebec 1759  - Articles of Capitulation of Montreal 1760  - Treaty... In the History of Brazil, Colonial Brazil comprises the period from 1500, with the arrival of the Portuguese, until 1822, when Brazil became independent from Portugal. ... The Spanish Man was a name given to the Caribbean coast of the Spanish Empire in mainland Central and South America. ... The Spanish West Indies (also known as Las Antillas) consist of Cuba, Hispaniola (present-day Dominican Republic and Haiti), Puerto Rico, Jamaica (until the 1655) , the Cayman Islands, Trinidad (until 1797) and Bay Islands (until 1643). ... The Captaincy General of Guatamala (Spanish: Capitania General de Goathemalawa) was an administrative division in Spanish America which covered much of Central America, extending from the Soconusco region - located in what is now the southern part of Mexico (states of Chiapas, Tabasco, Quintana Roo, and Yucatan) - to Costa Rica. ... Created in 1542, the Viceroyalty of Peru (in Spanish, Virreinato del Perú) contained most of Spanish-ruled South America until the creation of the separate viceroyalties of New Granada (now Colombia, Ecuador, Panamá and Venezuela, the last-named previously in the Viceroyalty of New Spain) in 1717 and Río...

Decolonization

The formation of sovereign states in the New World begins with the United States Declaration of Independence of 1776. The American Revolutionary War lasted until 1783. Decolonization of the Americas refers to the process by which the countries in North America and South America gained their independence. ... The United States Declaration of Independence was an act of the Second Continental Congress, adopted on July 4, 1776, which declared that the Thirteen Colonies in North America were Free and Independent States and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to... This article is about military actions only. ...

The Spanish colonies won their independence in the first quarter of the 19th century, in the South American Wars of Independence. Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín led their independence struggle. Although Bolivar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of the continent politically unified, they rapidly became independent of one another as well, and several further wars were fought, such as the War of the Triple Alliance and the War of the Pacific. In the Portuguese colony Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese king Dom João VI, proclaimed the country's independence in 1822 and became Brazil's first Emperor. This was peacefully accepted by the crown in Portugal, upon compensation. Because Spain was virtually cut off from its colonies during the Peninsular War of 1808–1814, Latin America was, in these years, ruled by independent juntas. ... This article is about the South American independence leader. ... José Francisco de San Martín Matorras, also known as José de San Martín (25 February 1778 – 17 August 1850), was an Argentine general and the prime leader of the southern part of South Americas successful struggle for independence from Spain. ... Combatants Paraguay Uruguay, Argentina, Empire of Brazil Commanders Francisco Solano López † José E. Díaz Pedro II of Brazil Duke of Caxias Bartolomé Mitre Venancio Flores Strength at the beginning of the war ca. ... For the conflict between Japan and the Allied powers in Asia and the Pacific Ocean from 1937 to 1945, which included World War II campaigns, see Pacific War. ... Pedro I, Emperor of Brazil; Pedro IV of Portugal Pedro I of Brazil, known as Dom Pedro (October 12, 1798 - September 24, 1834), proclaimed Brazil independent from Portugal and became Brazils first Emperor. ... Louis XIV, king of France and Navarre (Painting by Hyacinthe Rigaud, 1701). ... John VI (Portuguese João), the Clement (Port. ... An emperorrefers to Nick Herringshaw, a title, empress may only indicate the wife of an emperor (empress consort. ...

Effects of slavery

Slavery has had a significant role in the economic development the New World after the colonization of the Americas by the Europeans. Slaves helped build the roads upon which they were transported. The cotton, tobacco, and sugar cane harvested by slaves became important exports for the United States and the Caribbean countries. Frontispiece of Peter Martyr dAnghieras De orbe novo (On the New World). Carte dAmérique, Guillaume Delisle, 1722. ... For other uses, see Cotton (disambiguation). ... Shredded tobacco leaf for pipe smoking Tobacco can also be pressed into plugs and sliced into flakes Tobacco is an agricultural product processed from the fresh leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. ... Species Ref: ITIS 42058 as of 2004-05-05 Sugarcane is one of six species of a tall tropical southeast Asian grass (Family Poaceae) having stout fibrous jointed stalks whose sap at one time was the primary source of sugar. ... West Indies redirects here. ...

20th century

North America

As a part of the British Empire Canada immediately was at war in 1914. Canada bore the brunt of several major battles during the early stages of the war including the use of poison gas attacks at Ypres. Losses became grave, and the government eventually brought in conscription, despite the fact this was against the wishes of the majority of French Canadians. In the ensuing Conscription Crisis of 1917, riots broke out on the streets of Montreal. In neighboring Newfoundland, the new dominion suffered a devastating loss on July 1, 1916, the First day on the Somme. A Canadian WWI recruiting poster // World War I Main article: Military History of Canada during WWI On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary was assassinated, setting off a chain of events leading to World War I. By August 4, Britain had declared war on Germany and, as... This article is about the Mexican Revolution of 1910. ... The history of the United States from 1918 through 1945 covers the post-World War I era, the Great Depression, and World War II. After World War I, the United States signed separate peace treaties with Germany and her allies. ... Prime Minister of Canada Robert Borden at the outbreak at the Great War. ... For a comprehensive list of the territories that formed the British Empire, see Evolution of the British Empire. ... A poison gas attack using gas cylinders in World War I. The use of poison gas in World War I was a major military innovation. ... Combatants Belgium  Canada France Colonial forces United Kingdom British India  German Empire Commanders Horace Smith-Dorrien[1] Henri Gabriel Putz[2] A.-L.-T. de Ceuninck[3] Albrecht of Württemberg[4] Strength 8 infantry divisions[5] 7 infantry divisions Casualties 70,000 dead, wounded, or missing 35,000 dead... Because it has represented different realities at different points in time, the term French Canada can be interpreted in different ways. ... The Conscription Crisis of 1917 was a political and military crisis in Canada during World War I. // At the outbreak of war in 1914, over 30,000 volunteers joined the army, far more than expected. ... Nickname: Motto: Concordia Salus (well-being through harmony) Coordinates: , Country Province Region Montréal Founded 1642 Established 1832 Government  - Mayor Gérald Tremblay Area [1][2][3]  - City 365. ... Combatants British Empire United Kingdom Australia New Zealand South Africa Newfoundland India France German Empire Commanders Douglas Haig Henry Rawlinson Ferdinand Foch Fritz von Below Strength 13 British divisions 6 French divisions 6 divisions Casualties British: 57,470 French: 7,000 8,000 dead or wounded 2,200 prisoners The...

The United States stayed apart from the conflict until 1917, joining the Entente powers. The United States was then able to play a crucial role at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 that shaped interwar Europe. Paris 1919 redirects here. ... The Interwar period was the time between World War I and World War II, ergo the 1920s and 1930s. ...

Mexico was not part of the war as the country was embroiled in the Mexican Revolution at the time.

The 1920s brought an age of great prosperity in the United States, and to a lesser degree Canada. But the Wall Street Crash of 1929 combined with drought ushered in a period of economic hardship in the United States and Canada. For the film, see The Roaring Twenties. ... For other uses, see The Great Depression (disambiguation). ... The struggle between church and state in Mexico broke out in armed conflict during the Cristero War (also known as the Cristiada) of 1926 to 1929. ... Crowd gathering on Wall Street. ... Farmer and two sons during a dust storm, Cimarron County, Oklahoma, 1936 The Dust Bowl, or the dirty thirties, was a period of horrible dust storms causing major ecological and agricultural damage to American and Canadian prairie lands from 1930 to 1936 (in some areas until 1940), caused by severe...

From 1936 to 1949, this was a popular uprising against the anti-Catholic Mexican government of the time, set off specifically by the anti-clerical provisions of the Mexican Constitution of 1917. The 1917 Constitution of Mexico is the present constitution of Mexico. ...

Once again Canada found herself at war before her neighbours, however even Canadian contributions were slight before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Prime Minister Mackenzie Kings request to King George VI for approval that war be declared against Germany in His Majestys name, September 10, 1939. ... The Military history of the United States during World War II covers the involvement of the United States during the Second World War. ... The United States home front during World War II covers the developments within the United States, 1940-1945, to support its efforts during the Second World War. ... Faja de Oro (Golden Belt), a Mexican oil transporter, it was originally an Italian ship, classified as a tanker and identified by the name Genoano. In 1941 this vessel was seized by the Mexican government when the ship was anchored in the Port of Tampico, Mexico one day after the... El Escuadrón 201 (also known as The Aztec Eagles) was a Mexican fighter squadron, part of the Fuerza Aerea Expedicionaria Mexicana (FAEM - Mexican Expeditionary Air Force) that aided the Allied war effort during World War II. The Aztec Eagles were attached to the 58th Fighter Group of the United... This article is about the actual attack. ...

The entry of the United States into the war helped to tip the balance in favour of the allies. This article is about the independent states that comprised the Allies. ...

Two Mexican tankers, transporting oil to the United States, were attacked and sunk by the Germans in the Gulf of Mexico waters, in 1942. The incident happened in spite of Mexico's neutrality at that time. This led Mexico to declare war to the Axis nations and entered the conflict. Gulf of Mexico in 3D perspective. ...

The destruction of Europe wrought by the war vaulted all North American countries to more important roles in world affairs. The United States especially emerged as a "superpower". Superpowers redirects here. ...

The early Cold War era saw the United States as the most powerful nation in a Western coalition of which Mexico and Canada were also a part. At home, the United States witnessed convulsive change especially in the area of race relations. In Canada this was mirrored by the Quiet Revolution and the emergence of Quebec nationalism. Italic text The history of the United States from 1945 through 1964 covers the early Cold War and the [[African-American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|Civil Rights Movement]]. The period of United States history is seen as a period of active foreign policy designed to rescue Europe from the... // The Second World War brought many changes to Canada; the government was necessarily more centralized during the war, and it remained so afterwards. ... Prominent figures of the African-American Civil Rights Movement. ... Race relations is the area of sociology that studies the social, political, and economic relations between races at all different levels of society. ... The Quiet Revolution (French: Révolution tranquille) was the 1960s period of rapid change in Quebec, Canada. ... Quebec nationalism is the subject of many international studies together with the contemporary nationalism of Scotland, Catalonia and other non-sovereign regions of the world. ...

Mexico experienced an era of huge economic growth after World War II, a heavy industrialization process and a growth of its middle class, a period known in Mexican history as the "El Milagro Mexicano" (Mexican miracle).

The Caribbean saw the beginnings of decolonization, while on the largest island the Cuban Revolution introduced Cold War rivalries into Latin America. Colonialism in 1945 Decolonization refers to the undoing of colonialism, the establishment of governance or authority through the creation of settlements by another country or jurisdiction. ... THE CUBAN REVOLUTION The Cuban Revolution refers to the revolution that led to the overthrow of General Fulgencio Batistas regime on January 1, 1959 by the 26th of July Movement and other revolutionary elements within the country. ...

During this time the United States become involved in the Vietnam War as part of the global Cold War. This war would latter prove to be highly divisive in American society, and American troops were withdrawn. The history of the United States from 1964 through 1980 includes the continuation of the African American Civil Rights Movement; the Vietnam War and protests against it; the continuation of the Cold War, with its competition to put a man on the Moon. ... // Main article: Great Flag Debate Diefenbaker was succeeded by Pearson in 1963, at a time of increasing political unrest in much of the Western world. ... The 1960s decade refers to the years from the beginning of 1960 to the end of 1969. ... The 1970s decade refers to the years from 1970 to 1979; it is commonly called The Seventies. ... Combatants Republic of Vietnam United States Republic of Korea Thailand Australia New Zealand The Philippines National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam Democratic Republic of Vietnam People’s Republic of China Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea Strength US 1,000,000 South Korea 300,000 Australia 48,000...

Canada during this era was dominated by the leadership of Pierre Elliot Trudeau. Eventually in 1982 at the end of his tenure, Canada received a new constitution. Name Pierre Elliott Trudeau Number Fifteenth First term April 20, 1968–June 4,1979 Second term March 3, 1980–June 30, 1984 Predecessor Lester Bowles Pearson Successors Joe Clark John Napier Turner Date of birth October 18, 1919 Place of birth Montreal, Quebec Date of death September 28, 2000 Spouse...

Canada's Brian Mulroney not only ran on a similar platform but also favored closer trade ties with the United States. This led to the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement in January 1989. This article covers the history of the United States from 1980 through 1988. ... // The New constitution Main article: Patriation In 1982 Britain passed the Canada Act, repatriating the Constitution of Canada. ... Martin Brian Mulroney PC CC GOQ (predominantly known as Brian Mulroney) (born March 20, 1939), was the eighteenth Prime Minister of Canada from September 17, 1984, to June 25, 1993 and was leader of the Progressive Conservative Party of Canada from 1983 to 1993. ... The Free Trade Agreement (FTA) was a trade agreement signed by Canada and the United States on January 2, 1988. ...

Mexican presidents Miguel de la Madrid, in the early 80s and Carlos Salinas de Gortari in the late 80s, started implementing liberal economic strategies that were seen as a good move. However, Mexico experienced a strong economic recession in 1982 and the Mexican peso suffered a devaluation. Presidential elections held in 1988 were forecast to be very competitive and they were. Leftist candidate Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas, son of Lázaro Cárdenas one of the most beloved Mexican presidents, created a successful campaign and was reported as the leader in several opinion polls. On July 6, 1988, the day of the elections, a system shutdown of the IBM AS/400 that the government was using to count the votes occurred, presumably by accident. The government simply stated that "se cayó el sistema" ("the system crashed"), to refer to the incident. When the system was finally restored, the PRI candidate Carlos Salinas was declared the official winner. It was the first time that a non-PRI candidate was so close to win the presidency. Miguel de la Madrid Hurtado (born December 12, 1934) was President of Mexico, representing the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), from December 1, 1982 to December 1, 1988. ... Carlos Salinas de Gortari (born April 3, 1948 in Mexico City) was President of Mexico from 1988 to 1994. ... Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas (right) with Lionel Jospin. ... Lázaro Cárdenas del Río (May 21, 1895 – October 19, 1970) was President of Mexico from 1934 to 1940. ... For other uses, see IBM (disambiguation) and Big Blue. ...

In the United States president Ronald Reagan attempted to move the United States back towards a hard anti-communist line in foreign affairs, in what his supporters saw as an attempt to assert moral leadership (compared to the Soviet Union) in the world community. Domestically, Reagan attempted to bring in a package of privatization and regulation to stimulate the economy. Reagan redirects here. ... Origins People Theories Ideas Movements Topics Related Philosophy Portal Politics Portal        Privatization is the incidence or process of transferring ownership of business from the public sector (government) to the private sector (business). ...

The End of the Cold War and the beginning of the era of sustained economic expansion coincided during the 1990s. On January 1, 1994 Canada, Mexico and the United States signed the North American Free Trade Agreement, creating the world's largest free trade area. At same time the EZLN, an indigenous guerilla movement declared war on the Mexican government and neo-liberalism in protest of the North American Free Trade Agreement. In 2000, Vicente Fox became the first non-PRI candidate to win the Mexican presidency in over 70 years. This article covers the history of the United States from 1988 to present. ... // Chretien years and the 1995 referendum Jean Chrétien became prime minister in the 1993 election, pledging to repeal the GST, which proved to be unfeasible due to the economic circumstances at the time. ... NAFTA redirects here. ... Vicente Fox Quesada (born July 2, 1942) was the President of Mexico from 2000 to 2006. ... PRI may refer to: IATA airport code for Praslin Island Airport, in the Seychelles The ISO 3166-1 3-letter country code and an abbreviation for Puerto Rico Pacific Research Institute, think tank Paleontological Research Institution Partido Revolucionario Institucional, Mexican political party Partito Repubblicano Italiano, Italian political party Penal Reform...

The optimism of the 1990s was shattered by the 9/11 attacks of 2001 on the United States, which prompted military intervention in Afghanistan, which also involved Canada. Canada did not support the United States' later move to invade Iraq, however. The date that commonly refers to the attacks on United States citizens on September 11, 2001 (see the September 11, 2001 Attacks). ... For other uses, see Iraq war (disambiguation). ...

Central America

Despite the failure of a lasting political union, the concept of Central American reunification, though lacking enthusiasm from the leaders of the individual countries, rises from time to time. In 1856-1857 the region successfully established a military coalition to repel an invasion by U.S. adventurer William Walker. Today, all five nations fly flags that retain the old federal motif of two outer blue bands bounding an inner white stripe. (Costa Rica, traditionally the least committed of the five to regional integration, modified its flag significantly in 1848 by darkening the blue and adding a double-wide inner red band, in honor of the French tricolor). For other uses of terms redirecting here, see US (disambiguation), USA (disambiguation), and United States (disambiguation) Motto In God We Trust(since 1956) (From Many, One; Latin, traditional) Anthem The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington, D.C. Largest city New York City National language English (de facto)1 Demonym American... William Walker William Walker (May 8, 1824 – September 12, 1860) was a U.S. physician, lawyer, journalist, adventurer, and soldier of fortune who attempted to conquer several Latin American countries in the mid-19th century. ... For other uses, see Flag (disambiguation). ...

In 1907 a Central American Court of Justice was created. On December 13, 1960, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua established the Central American Common Market ("CACM"). Costa Rica, because of its relative economic prosperity and political stability, chose not to participate in the CACM. The goals for the CACM were to create greater political unification and success of Import Substitution Industrialization policies. The project was an immediate economic success, but was abandoned after the 1969 "Football War" between El Salvador and Honduras. The Central American Court of Justice was an international court established by five Central American states by a treaty signed December 20, 1907 at Washington, D.C. Categories: Law stubs ... The Central American Common Market (abbreviated CACM - in Spanish: Mercado Común Centroamericano, abbreviated MCCA) is an economic trade organization between five nations of Central America. ... Combatants El Salvador Honduras Commanders Fidel Sánchez Hernández Salvador Henríquez Oswaldo López Arellano Oscar Colindres Strength 20,000 (Army) 1,000 (Air Force) 12,000 (Army) 1,200 (Air Force) Casualties 700 (including civilians) 1,200 (including civilians) The Football War (La guerra de fútbol...

A Central American Parliament has operated, as a purely advisory body, since 1991. Costa Rica has repeatedly declined invitations to join the regional parliament, which seats deputies from the four other former members of the Union, as well as from Panama and the Dominican Republic. The Central American Parliament, also know by the abbreviation Parlacen (from the Spanish Parlamento Centroamericano) is a political institution devoted to the integration of the Central American countries. ...

South America

In the 1960s and 1970s, the governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay were overthrown or displaced by U.S.-aligned military dictatorships. These dictatorships detained tens of thousands of political prisoners, many of whom were tortured and/or killed (on inter-state collaboration, see Operation Condor). Economically, they began a transition to neoliberal economic policies. They placed their own actions within the U.S. Cold War doctrine of "National Security" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from an internal conflict (see Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement and Shining Path). Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships have been common, but starting in the 1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and democratic rule is widespread now. Allegations of corruption remain common, and several nations have seen crises which have forced the resignation of their presidents, although normal civilian succession has continued. The United States have always had a special conception of their relationship toward countries of South and Central America. ... A political prisoner is someone held in prison or otherwise detained, perhaps under house arrest, because their ideas or image are deemed by a government to either challenge or threaten the authority of the state. ... For other uses of Operation Condor, please see Operation Condor (disambiguation) Operation Condor (Spanish: Operación Cóndor, Portuguese: Operação Condor) was a campaign of political repressions involving assassination and intelligence operations officially implemented starting in 1975 by the right-wing dictatorships that dominated the Southern Cone in South... The term neoliberalism is used to describe a political-economic philosophy that had major implications for government policies beginning in the 1970s – and increasingly prominent since 1980 – that de-emphasizes or rejects positive government intervention in the economy, focusing instead on achieving progress and even social justice by encouraging free... For other uses of terms redirecting here, see US (disambiguation), USA (disambiguation), and United States (disambiguation) Motto In God We Trust(since 1956) (From Many, One; Latin, traditional) Anthem The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington, D.C. Largest city New York City National language English (de facto)1 Demonym American... For other uses, see Cold War (disambiguation). ... Combatants Republic of Peru Shining Path Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement Commanders Fernando Belaúnde Terry Alan García Alberto Fujimori Abimael Guzmán Óscar Ramírez Comrade ArtemioVíctor Polay Nestor Cerpa Cartolini It has been estimated that nearly 70,000 people died in the internal conflict in Peru... The Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement or Movimiento Revolucionario Túpac Amaru (MRTA) was an insurgent guerrilla movement active in Peru from 1984 to 1997. ... The Communist Party of Peru (Spanish: Partido Comunista del Perú), more commonly known as the Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso), is a Maoist guerrilla organization in Peru that launched the internal conflict in Peru in 1980. ...

International indebtedness became a notable problem, as most recently illustrated by Argentina's default in the early 21st century. Developing countries debt is external debt incurred by Third World countries, generally in quantities beyond that countrys ability to repay. ... The Argentine economic crisis was part of the situation that affected Argentinas economy during the late 1990s and early 2000s. ...

In recent years South American governments have drifted to the left, with socialist leaders being elected in Chile, Bolivia, Brazil, Venezuela, and a leftist president in Argentina and Uruguay. Despite the move to the left, South America is still largely capitalist. Socialism is a social and economic system (or the political philosophy advocating such a system) in which the economic means of production are owned and controlled collectively by the people. ...

With the founding of the Union of South American Nations, South America has started down the road of economic integration, with plans for political integration in the European Union style.  Full member states  Observer States Political centres Brasília[1] Quito Cochabamba Bogota , Largest city São Paulo Official languages 4 Dutch English Portuguese Spanish Ethnic groups (2007) 7 White (46%) Mulatto (21%) Mestizo (21%) Amerindian (6%) Black (4%) Mixed (<1%) Other (2%) Demonym South American Member states 12 Argentina...

See also

v • d • e History of the Americas History North America · Mesoamerica · Central America · Caribbean · Latin America · South America Settlement Models of migration to the New World · Indigenous peoples · Indigenous population · Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact · Discoverer of the Americas · European colonization of the Americas · Spanish colonization of the Americas · Columbian Exchange · Decolonization Societies Pre-Columbian · Paleo-Indians · Maya · Incas · Aztecs Related Maps · Archaeology · Culture · Geography · Indigenous languages · Epidemics · Slavery Lists Pre-Columbian cultures · Indigenous peoples · Population · Conflicts Chronology Archaeological periods by region · North America by period · North American timelines · Mesoamerica by period · Mesoamerica timeline · Paleo-Indian period Era: By period · By region · Three-age system · Ancient history · Pre-Columbian · Classical Antiquity · Middle Ages · Modern history · Future

Notes

References

• Kane , Katie Nits Make Lice: Drogheda, Sand Creek, and the Poetics of Colonial Extermination Cultural Critique, No. 42 (Spring, 1999), pp. 81-103 doi:10.2307/1354592
• Churchill, Ward A Little Matter of Genocide 1997 City Lights Books ISBN 0872863239