Arms of the Hohenstaufen Dynasty

The Hohenstaufen (or the Staufer(s)) were a dynasty of Kings of Germany, many of whom were also crowned Holy Roman Emperor and Dukes of Swabia. In 1194 the Hohenstaufen became also Kings of Sicily. The proper name, taken from their castle in Swabia, is Staufen. Therefore the dynasty is sometimes also called Swabian dynasty after the family's origin. Image File history File links Armoiries_Famille_Hohenstaufen. ... Image File history File links Armoiries_Famille_Hohenstaufen. ... The following list of German Kings and Emperors is one of several Wikipedia lists of incumbents. ... The Holy Roman Emperor was, with some variation, the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, the predecessor of modern Germany, during its existence from the 10th century until its collapse in 1806. ... The following is a list of Dukes of Swabia, including the several holders of the title who were also Holy Roman Emperors. ... The following is a list of monarchs of the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily: // Hauteville Counts of Sicily, 1071–1130 Roger I 1071–1101 Simon 1101–1105 Roger II 1105–1130 Hauteville Kings of Sicily, 1130–1198 Roger II 1130–1154 William I 1154–1166 William II 1166–1189 Tancred... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Ruling in Germany

Family tree of the Hohenstaufen emperors including their relation to succeeding dynasties

When the last male member of the Salian dynasty, Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor, died without an heir there was controversy about the succession. Frederick and Conrad, the two current male Staufens, were grandsons of Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor and nephews of Henry V. After the death of the intervening king and emperor Lothair II, in 1137, Conrad became Conrad III of Germany. Image File history File links Staufen_dynasty. ... Image File history File links Staufen_dynasty. ... The Salian Dynasty of the Holy Roman Empire was founded by Conrad II (c. ... Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor, (1081 – May 23, 1125) was the fourth and last ruler of the Salian dynasty. ... HEINRIC·IMP[ERATOR], Emperor Henry Henry IV (November 11, 1050 – August 7, 1106) was King of Germany (Holy Roman Empire) from 1056 and Emperor from 1084, until his abdication in 1105. ... Lothair II of Supplinburg ( 1075– 1137), was the Duke of Saxony ( 1106), King of Germany ( 1125), and Holy Roman Emperor from 1133 to 1137. ... Conrad III (1093-1152), the first German king of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, was the son of Frederick I, Duke of Swabia. ...

The second of the Hohenstaufen rulers, Frederick I(r. 1152-90), also known as Frederick Barbarossa because of his red beard, struggled throughout his reign to restore the power and prestige of the German monarchy, but he had little success. Because the German dukes had grown stronger both during and after the Investiture Controversy and because royal access to the resources of the church in Germany was much reduced, Frederick was forced to go to Italy to find the finances needed to restore the king's power in Germany. He was soon crowned emperor in Italy, but decades of warfare on the peninsula yielded scant results. The papacy and the prosperous city-states of northern Italy were traditional enemies, but the fear of imperial domination caused them to join ranks to fight Frederick. Under the skilled leadership of Pope Alexander III, the alliance suffered many defeats but ultimately was able to deny the emperor a complete victory in Italy. Frederick returned to Germany old and embittered. He had vanquished one notable opponent and member of the Welf family, Saxony's Henry the Lion, but his hopes of restoring the power and prestige of his family and the monarchy seemed unlikely to be met by the end of his life. Frederick in a 13th century Chronicle Frederick I (German: Friedrich I. von Hohenstaufen)(1122 – June 10, 1190), also known as Friedrich Barbarossa (Frederick Redbeard) was elected king of Germany on March 4, 1152 and crowned Holy Roman Emperor on June 18, 1155. ... The Investiture Controversy was the most significant conflict between secular and religious powers in medieval Europe. ... Alexander III, né Orlando Bandinelli (c. ... Coronation of Henry the Lion and Matilda of England (1188) Henry the Lion (face of statue on his tomb in Brunswick Cathedral) Henry the Lion (1129 - August 6, 1195; in German, Heinrich der Löwe) was a member of the Welf dynasty and Duke of Saxony as Henry III since...

During Frederick's long stays in Italy, the German princes became stronger and began a successful colonization of Slavic lands. Offers of reduced taxes and manorial duties enticed many Germans to settle in the east as the area's original inhabitants were killed or driven away. Because of this colonization, the empire increased in size and came to include Pomerania, Silesia, Bohemia, and Moravia. A quickening economic life in Germany increased the number of towns and gave them greater importance. It was also during this period that castles and courts replaced monasteries as centers of culture. Growing out of this courtly culture, German medieval literature reached its peak in lyrical love poetry, the Minnesang , and in narrative epic poems such as Tristan, Parzival, and the Nibelungenlied. Historic Pomerania (outlined in yellow) on the background of modern country borders. ... Prussian Silesia, 1871, outlined in yellow; Silesia at the close of the Seven Years War in 1763, outlined in cyan (areas now in the Czech Republic were Austrian-ruled at that time) Silesia (Czech: ; German: ; Polish: ; Silesian: Ślonsk / Ślónsk) is a historical region in central Europe. ... Flag of Bohemia Bohemia (Czech: ; German: ) is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western and middle thirds of the Czech Republic. ... Moravia in relation to the current kraje of the Czech Republic Moravia (Czech and Slovak: Morava, German: ( ), Hungarian: Morvaország, Polish: Morawy) is a historical region in the east of the Czech Republic. ... Tristan and Iseult as depicted by Herbert Draper (1864 -1920). ... Parzival is one of the two great epic poems in Middle High German. ... The Nibelungenlied is an epic poem in Middle High German. ...

Frederick died in 1190 while on a crusade and was succeeded by his son, Henry VI (r. 1190-97). Elected king even before his father's death, Henry went to Rome to be crowned emperor. A death in his wife's family gave him possession of Sicily, a source of vast wealth. Henry failed to make royal and imperial succession hereditary, but in 1196 he succeeded in gaining a pledge that his infant son Frederick would receive the German crown. Faced with difficulties in Italy and confident that he would realize his wishes in Germany at a later date, Henry returned to the south, where it appeared he might unify the peninsula under the Hohenstaufen name. After a series of military victories, however, he died of natural causes in Sicily in 1197. Events March 16 - Massacre and mass-suicide of the Jews of York, England prompted by Crusaders and Richard Malebys kill 150-500 Jews in Cliffords Tower June 10 - Third Crusade: Frederick I Barbarossa drowned in the Saleph River while leading an army to Jerusalem. ... This article is about the medieval crusades. ... Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (November 1165, Nijmegen – September 28, 1197, Messina) was king of Germany 1190-1197, and Holy Roman Emperor 1191-1197. ... This article is about the capital of Italy. ... Constance of Sicily ( 1154 - November 27, 1198) was in her own right Queen of Sicily, became German Empress as the wife of the Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI, and was the mother of the Emperor and King of Sicily Frederick II. She was the posthumous daughter of Roger II of... Sicilian redirects here. ... Events Spring, London, popular uprising of the poor against the rich led by William Fitz Osbern. ... Frederick II (December 26, 1194 – December 13, 1250), Holy Roman Emperor of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, was pretender to the title of King of the Romans from 1212, unopposed holder of that monarchy from 1215, and Holy Roman Emperor from 1220 until his death in 1250. ...

Because the election of the three-year-old Frederick to be German king appeared likely to make orderly rule difficult, the boy's uncle, Philip, was chosen to serve in his place. Other factions elected a Welf candidate, Otto IV, as counterking, and a long civil war began. Philip was about to win when he was murdered by a relative in 1208. Otto IV in turn was beaten by the French at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214. Frederick returned to Germany in 1212 from Sicily, where he had grown up, and became king in 1215. As Frederick II (r. 1215-50), he spent little time in Germany because his main concerns lay in Italy. Frederick made significant concessions to the German nobles, such as those put forth in an imperial statute of 1232, which made princes virtually independent rulers within their territories. The clergy also became more powerful. Although Frederick was one of the most energetic, imaginative, and capable rulers of the Middle Ages, he did nothing to draw the disparate forces in Germany together. His legacy was thus that local rulers had more authority after his reign than before it. Philip of Swabia depicted in a medieval manuscript (about 1200) Philip of Swabia (1177-1208), German king and duke of Swabia, the rival of the emperor Otto IV, was the fifth and youngest son of the emperor Frederick I and Beatrix, daughter of Renaud III, count of Burgundy, and consequently... The House of Welf (or House of Guelph) is a European dynasty that has included many German and British monarchs from the 11th century until the 20th century. ... Otto IV of Brunswick (died 1218) was King of Germany (1208-1215) and Holy Roman Emperor from 1209 - 1215. ... Events Philip of Swabia King of Germany and rival Holy Roman Emperor to Otto IV, assassinated June 21 in Bamberg by German Count Otto of Wittelsbach because Philip had refused to give him his daughter in marriage. ... The Battle of Bouvines, July 27, 1214, was the first great international conflict of alliances among national forces in Europe. ... Events Simon Apulia becomes Bishop of Exeter. ... Events The first Great Fire of London burns most of the city to the ground Battle of Navas de Tolosa Childrens crusade Crusaders push the Muslims out of northern Spain In Japan, Kamo no Chōmei writes the Hōjōki, one of the great works of classical Japanese... // Events A certified copy of the Magna Carta June 15 - King John of England forced to put his seal to the Magna Carta, outlining the rights of landowning men (nobles and knights) and restricting the kings power. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ...

By the time of Frederick's death in 1250, there was little centralized power in Germany. The Great Interregnum (1256-73), a period of anarchy in which there was no emperor and German princes vied for individual advantage, followed the death of Frederick's son Conrad IV in 1254. In this short period, the German nobility managed to strip many powers away from the already diminished monarchy. Rather than establish sovereign states, however, many nobles tended to look after their families. Their many heirs created more and smaller estates. A largely free class of officials also formed, many of whom eventually acquired hereditary rights to administrative and legal offices. These trends compounded political fragmentation within Germany. An interregnum is a period between kings, or between popes of the Roman Catholic Church. ... Conrad IV, Conrad of Hohenstaufen (April 25, 1228 Andria, Italy – May 21, 1254, Lavello), was king of Jerusalem (as Conrad II) 1228–1254, of Germany 1237–1254, and of Sicily (as Conrad I) 1250–1254. ... For broader historical context, see 1250s and 13th century. ...

Despite the political chaos of the Hohenstaufen period, the population grew from an estimated 8 million in 1200 to about 14 million in 1300, and the number of towns increased tenfold. The most heavily urbanized areas of Germany were located in the south and the west. Towns often developed a degree of independence, but many were subordinate to local rulers or the emperor. Colonization of the east also continued in the thirteenth century, most notably through the efforts of the Knights of the Teutonic Order, a society of soldier-monks. German merchants also began trading extensively on the Baltic. Teutonic Knights, charging into battle. ... The Baltic Sea The Baltic region (sometimes briefly The Baltics) is an ambiguous term used to denominate an arbitrary region connected to the Baltic Sea (also called The Baltics). ...

Members of the Hohenstaufen family

Holy Roman Emperors and Kings of Germany

• Conrad III, king 1138-1152
• Frederick I Barbarossa, king 1152-1190, Emperor after 1155
• Henry VI, king 1190-1197, Emperor after 1191

Hohenstaufen in 1905

• Philip of Swabia, king 1198-1208
• Frederick II, king 1208-1250, Emperor after 1220
• Henry (VII), king 1220 - 1235 (under his father Frederick II)
• Conrad IV, king 1237-1254 (until 1250 under his father Frederick II)

Like the first ruling Hohenstaufen, Conrad III, also the last one, Conrad IV, was never crowned emperor. After a 20 year period (Interregnum 1254-1273) the first Habsburg was elected king. Conrad III (1093-1152), the first German king of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, was the son of Frederick I, Duke of Swabia. ... Frederick in a 13th century Chronicle Frederick I (German: Friedrich I. von Hohenstaufen)(1122 – June 10, 1190), also known as Friedrich Barbarossa (Frederick Redbeard) was elected king of Germany on March 4, 1152 and crowned Holy Roman Emperor on June 18, 1155. ... Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (November 1165 - September 28, 1197) was king of Germany 1190-1197, and Holy Roman Emperor 1191-1197. ... Image File history File links Hohenstaufen-1905. ... Philip of Swabia depicted in a medieval manuscript (about 1200) Philip of Swabia (1177-1208), German king and duke of Swabia, the rival of the emperor Otto IV, was the fifth and youngest son of the emperor Frederick I and Beatrix, daughter of Renaud III, count of Burgundy, and consequently... Frederick II (December 26, 1194 – December 13, 1250), Holy Roman Emperor of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, was pretender to the title of King of the Romans from 1212, unopposed holder of that monarchy from 1215, and Holy Roman Emperor from 1220 until his death in 1250. ... Henry (VII) (1211 – February 10, 1242), was King of the Romans, King of Sicily, and Duke of Swabia. ... Conrad IV (April 25, 1228 Andria, Italy - May 21, 1254), Lavello, was king of Jerusalem 1228-1254, Germany 1237-1254, and Sicily 1250-1254. ... An interregnum is a period between monarchs, between popes of the Roman Catholic Church, emperors of Holy Roman Empire, polish kings (elective monarchy) or between consuls of the Roman Republic. ... Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy; also used as the flag of the Austrian Empire until the Ausgleich of 1867. ...

Arms of the Hohenstaufen Sicily

Image File history File links Hohenstaufen. ... Image File history File links Hohenstaufen. ...

Kings of Sicily

Note: Some of the following kings are already listed above as German Kings

• Henry VI 1194-1197
• Frederick 1198-1250
  • Henry (VII) 1212–1217 (nominal king under his father)
• Conrad 1250-1254
• (Conradin 1254-1258/1268)
• Manfred 1258-1266

Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (November 1165, Nijmegen – September 28, 1197, Messina) was king of Germany 1190-1197, and Holy Roman Emperor 1191-1197. ... Events November 20 - Palermo falls to Henry VI, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire December 25 - Henry VI is crowned king of Sicily. ... Events Amalric II succeeds Henry II of Champagne as king of Jerusalem. ... Frederick II (December 26, 1194 – December 13, 1250), Holy Roman Emperor of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, was pretender to the title of King of the Romans from 1212, unopposed holder of that monarchy from 1215, and Holy Roman Emperor from 1220 until his death in 1250. ... Events End of the reign of Emperor Go-Toba of Japan Emperor Tsuchimikado ascends to the throne of Japan January 8 - Pope Innocent III ascends Papal Throne Frederick II, infant son of German King Henry VI, crowned King of Sicily Births August 24 - Alexander II of Scotland (d. ... Events December 13 - Death of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor Louis IX of France is captured by Muslims and has to ransom himself Mabinogion appears Albertus Magnus isolates the element arsenic Vincent of Beauvais writes proto-encyclopedic The Greater Mirror City of Stockholm founded Alphonso III of Portugal takes Algarve... Henry (VII) (1211 – February 10, 1242), was King of the Romans, King of Sicily, and Duke of Swabia. ... Events The first Great Fire of London burns most of the city to the ground Battle of Navas de Tolosa Childrens crusade Crusaders push the Muslims out of northern Spain In Japan, Kamo no Chōmei writes the Hōjōki, one of the great works of classical Japanese... Events April 9 - Peter of Courtenay crowned emperor of the Latin Empire of Constantinople at Rome, by Pope Honorius III May 20 - First Barons War, royalist victory at Lincoln. ... Conrad IV, Conrad of Hohenstaufen (April 25, 1228 Andria, Italy – May 21, 1254, Lavello), was king of Jerusalem (as Conrad II) 1228–1254, of Germany 1237–1254, and of Sicily (as Conrad I) 1250–1254. ... Events December 13 - Death of Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor Louis IX of France is captured by Muslims and has to ransom himself Mabinogion appears Albertus Magnus isolates the element arsenic Vincent of Beauvais writes proto-encyclopedic The Greater Mirror City of Stockholm founded Alphonso III of Portugal takes Algarve... For broader historical context, see 1250s and 13th century. ... Portrait of Conradin from the Codex Manesse (Folio 7r). ... For broader historical context, see 1250s and 13th century. ... For broader historical context, see 1250s and 13th century. ... For broader historical context, see 1260s and 13th century. ... Manfred (c. ... For broader historical context, see 1250s and 13th century. ... For broader historical context, see 1260s and 13th century. ...

Dukes of Swabia

Note: Some of the following dukes are already listed above as German Kings

• Frederick I, Duke of Swabia (Friedrich) (r. 1079 - 1105)
• Frederick II, Duke of Swabia (r. 1105 - 1147)
• Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor (Frederick III of Swabia)(r. 1147 - 1152) King in 1152 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1155
• Frederick IV, Duke of Swabia (r. 1152 - 1167)
• Frederick V, Duke of Swabia (r. 1167 - 1170)
• Frederick VI, Duke of Swabia (r. 1170 - 1191)
• Conrad II, Duke of Swabia (r. 1191 - 1196)
• Philip of Swabia (r. 1196 - 1208) King in 1198
• Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1212 - 1216) King in 1212 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1220
• Henry (VII) of Germany (r. 1216 - 1235), King 1220 - 1235
• Conrad IV (r. 1235 - 1254) King in 1237
• Conrad V (Conradin) (r. 1254 - 1268)

Frederick I von Staufen (1050 – July 21, 1105) was duke of Swabia from 1079 to his death. ... Events Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor deposed by his son, Henry V Tamna kingdom annexed by Korean Goryeo Dynasty. ... Frederick II of Hohenstaufen (1090 – 1147) was duke of Swabia, succeeding his father, duke Frederick I in 1105. ... Events King Afonso I of Portugal and the Crusaders capture Lisbon from Muslims First written mention of Moscow. ... Frederick in a 13th century Chronicle Frederick I (German: Friedrich I. von Hohenstaufen)(1122 – June 10, 1190), also known as Friedrich Barbarossa (Frederick Redbeard) was elected king of Germany on March 4, 1152 and crowned Holy Roman Emperor on June 18, 1155. ... Events March 4 - Frederick I Barbarossa is elected King of the Germans Eleanor of Aquitaine has her marriage to Louis VII annulled May 18 - Eleanor of Aquitaine marries Henry of Anjou Church of Ireland acknowledges Popes authority Almohad Dynasty conquers Algeria Establishment of the archbishopric of Nidaros (Trondheim), Norway... Events March 4 - Frederick I Barbarossa is elected King of the Germans Eleanor of Aquitaine has her marriage to Louis VII annulled May 18 - Eleanor of Aquitaine marries Henry of Anjou Church of Ireland acknowledges Popes authority Almohad Dynasty conquers Algeria Establishment of the archbishopric of Nidaros (Trondheim), Norway... The Holy Roman Emperor was, with some variation, the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, the predecessor of modern Germany, during its existence from the 10th century until its collapse in 1806. ... Events Frederick I Barbarossa crowned Holy Roman Emperor. ... Frederick IV of Hohenstaufen (1145 – 1167) was duke of Swabia, succeeding his cousin, Frederick Brabarossa, Holy Roman Emperor, in 1152. ... Events Taira no Kiyomori becomes the first samurai to be appointed Daijo Daijin, chief minister of the government of Japan Peter of Blois becomes the tutor of William II of Sicily Absalon, archbishop of Denmark, leads the first Danish synod at Lund Absalon fortifies Copenhagen William Marshal, the greatest knight... Frederick V of Hohenstaufen (1164 – 1170) was duke of Swabia from 1167 to his death still young. ... Events December 29: Assassination of Thomas Beckett, Archbishop of Canterbury, in Canterbury cathedral City of Dublin captured by the Normans According to folklore, the Welsh prince Madoc sailed to North America and founded a colony. ... Frederick VI of Hohenstaufen (1167 – March 20, 1191) was duke of Swabia from 1170 to his death at the siege of Acre. ... // Events May 12 - Richard I of England marries Berengaria of Navarre. ... Conrad II of Hohenstaufen (1173 – August 15, 1196) was duke of Swabia from 1191 to his death and Duke of Rothenburg (1188-1191). ... Events Spring, London, popular uprising of the poor against the rich led by William Fitz Osbern. ... Philip of Swabia depicted in a medieval manuscript (about 1200) Philip of Swabia (1177-1208), German king and duke of Swabia, the rival of the emperor Otto IV, was the fifth and youngest son of the emperor Frederick I and Beatrix, daughter of Renaud III, count of Burgundy, and consequently... Events Philip of Swabia King of Germany and rival Holy Roman Emperor to Otto IV, assassinated June 21 in Bamberg by German Count Otto of Wittelsbach because Philip had refused to give him his daughter in marriage. ... Events End of the reign of Emperor Go-Toba of Japan Emperor Tsuchimikado ascends to the throne of Japan January 8 - Pope Innocent III ascends Papal Throne Frederick II, infant son of German King Henry VI, crowned King of Sicily Births August 24 - Alexander II of Scotland (d. ... Frederick II (December 26, 1194 – December 13, 1250), Holy Roman Emperor of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, was pretender to the title of King of the Romans from 1212, unopposed holder of that monarchy from 1215, and Holy Roman Emperor from 1220 until his death in 1250. ... Events Prince Louis of France, the future King Louis VIII, invades England in the First Barons War Henry III becomes King of England. ... Events The first Great Fire of London burns most of the city to the ground Battle of Navas de Tolosa Childrens crusade Crusaders push the Muslims out of northern Spain In Japan, Kamo no Chōmei writes the Hōjōki, one of the great works of classical Japanese... The Holy Roman Emperor was, with some variation, the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire, the predecessor of modern Germany, during its existence from the 10th century until its collapse in 1806. ... // The world in 1220 Middle Ages in Europe Fifth Crusade (1217-1221) Events Mongols first invade Abbasid caliphate - Bukhara and Samarkand taken End of the Kara-Khitan Khanate, destroyed by Genghis Khans Mongolian cavalry Dominican Order approved by Pope Honorius III Frederick II crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope... Henry (VII) (1211 – February 10, 1242), was King of the Romans, King of Sicily, and Duke of Swabia. ... Events Anglo-Norman invasion of Connacht St. ... Conrad IV (April 25, 1228 Andria, Italy - May 21, 1254), Lavello, was king of Jerusalem 1228-1254, Germany 1237-1254, and Sicily 1250-1254. ... For broader historical context, see 1250s and 13th century. ... // Events Thomas II of Savoy becomes count of Flanders. ... Portrait of Conradin from the Codex Manesse (Folio 7r). ... For broader historical context, see 1260s and 13th century. ...

See also

• Dukes of Swabia family tree
• List of monarchs of Naples and Sicily. Hohenstaufen kings ruled in Sicily from 1194 till Manfred of Sicily was killed in the Battle of Benevento in 1266.
• During the Third Reich, the Waffen-SS named an SS Panzer division Hohenstaufen in honour of this family.

This is a Family tree of the Dukes of Swabia, from 1012 to the end of the Hohenstaufen dominion over the duchy in 1268. ... The following is a list of monarchs of the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily: // Hauteville Counts of Sicily, 1071–1130 Roger I 1071–1101 Simon 1101–1105 Roger II 1105–1130 Hauteville Kings of Sicily, 1130–1198 Roger II 1130–1154 William I 1154–1166 William II 1166–1189 Tancred... Sicilian redirects here. ... Events November 20 - Palermo falls to Henry VI, Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire December 25 - Henry VI is crowned king of Sicily. ... Manfred (c. ... The Battle of Benevento was fought in Southern Italy on February 26, 1266, where the invading Angevin forces led by Charles, the Count of Anjou, overcame a combined German-Sicilian force led by Manfred of Sicily. ... For broader historical context, see 1260s and 13th century. ... Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ... The official cuff title worn by men of 9. ...

References

• This article contains material from the Library of Congress Country Studies, which are United States government publications in the public domain.