NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Hubble Space Telescope

The Hubble Space Telescope (HST; also known colloquially as "the Hubble" or just "Hubble") is a space telescope that was carried into Earth orbit by the Space Shuttle in April 1990. It is named for the American astronomer Edwin Hubble. The HST is part of NASA's Great Observatories series, with the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, the Chandra X-ray Observatory, and the Spitzer Space Telescope,^[3] and is a collaboration between NASA and the European Space Agency. Although Hubble was not the first space telescope, it is one of the largest and most versatile, and well known as both a vital research tool and a public relations boon for astronomy. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (945x766, 76 KB) Hubble Space Telescope as seen from the Space Shuttle Discovery on mission STS-82. ... Space Shuttle Discovery (Orbiter Vehicle Designation: OV-103) is one of the three currently operational spacecraft in the Space Shuttle fleet of NASA, the space agency of the United States. ... This is a mission of the United States Space Shuttle // Crew Kenneth D. Bowersox (4), - Commander Scott J. Horowitz (2), Pilot Mark C. Lee (4), Mission Specialist Steven A. Hawley (4), Mission Specialist Gregory J. Harbaugh (4), Mission Specialist Steven L. Smith (2), Mission Specialist Joseph R. Tanner (2), Mission... The International Designator (or NSSDC ID) is an international naming convention for satellites. ... For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation). ... ESA redirects here. ... The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) is an organization founded by NASA to manage and direct research done with the Hubble Space Telescope. ... is the 114th day of the year (115th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the year. ... Kg redirects here. ... Look up pound in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... A low Earth orbit (LEO) is an orbit in which objects such as satellites are below intermediate circular orbit (ICO) and far below geostationary orbit, but typically around 350 - 1400 km above the Earths surface. ... â€œkmâ€ redirects here. ... Metre per second (U.S. spelling: meter per second) is an SI derived unit of both speed (scalar) and velocity (vector), defined by distance in metres divided by time in seconds. ... Miles per hour is a unit of speed, expressing the number of international miles covered per hour. ... Kilometres per hour (American spelling: kilometers per hour) is a unit of both speed (scalar) and velocity (vector). ... The metre (or meter) per second squared is the SI derived unit of acceleration. ... A low Earth orbit (LEO) is an orbit in which objects such as satellites are below intermediate circular orbit (ICO) and far below geostationary orbit, but typically around 350 - 1400 km above the Earths surface. ... The Ritchey-Chrétien is a specialized Cassegrain reflector which has two hyperbolic mirrors (instead of a parabolic primary). ... For other uses, see Wavelength (disambiguation). ... See also list of optical topics. ... For other uses, see Ultraviolet (disambiguation). ... Image of a small dog taken in mid-infrared (thermal) light (false color) Infrared (IR) radiation is electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength longer than visible light, but shorter than microwave radiation. ... This article is about the unit of length. ... An inch (plural: inches; symbol or abbreviation: in or, sometimes, â€³ - a double prime) is the name of a unit of length in a number of different systems, including English units, Imperial units, and United States customary units. ... A square metre (US spelling: square meter) is by definition the area enclosed by a square with sides each 1 metre long. ... The square foot is an Imperial unit / U.S. customary unit (non-SI non-metric) of area, used in the United States. ... This article is about focal length related to lenses and systems of lenses. ... The Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS) is a scientific instrument for infrared astronomy, installed on the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), operating from 1997 to 1999, and from 2002 to the present. ... Introduction The Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) is a third generation axial instrument aboard the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). ... A Hubble Space Telescope image of the Hubble Deep Field showing the characteristic stairstep composition of WFPC2 images The Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) is a camera installed on the Hubble Space Telescope. ... The Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) is a spectrograph installed on the Hubble Space Telescope, operating from 1997 to 2004. ... One of the three Fine Guidance Sensors photographed during Second Servicing Mission in 1997 The Fine Guidance Sensor (FGS) is an interferometric instrument on board the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) that provides high-precision pointing information as input to the observatorys attitude control systems. ... Look up Colloquialism in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Space telescopes A space observatory is any instrument in outer space which is used for observation of distant planets, galaxies, and other outer space objects. ... Geocentric orbit refers to the orbit of any object orbiting the Earth, such as the Moon or artificial satellites. ... This article is about the space vehicle. ... Galileo is often referred to as the Father of Modern Astronomy. ... Edwin Powell Hubble (November 20, 1889 â€“ September 28, 1953) was an American astronomer. ... For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation). ... NASAs series of Great Observatories satellites were four large, powerful space-based telescopes. ... Illustration of CGRO The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory(CGRO) was the second of the NASA Great Observatories to be launched to space, following the Hubble Space Telescope. ... The Chandra X-ray Observatory is a satellite launched on STS-93 by NASA on July 23, 1999. ... The Spitzer Space Telescope (formerly the Space Infrared Telescope Facility [SIRTF]) is an infrared space observatory, the fourth and final of NASAs Great Observatories. ... ESA redirects here. ... For other uses, see Astronomy (disambiguation). ...

Space telescopes were proposed as early as the 1940s. The Hubble was funded in the 1970s, with a proposed launch in 1983, but the project was beset by technical delays, budget problems, and the Challenger disaster. When finally launched in 1990, scientists found that the main mirror had been ground incorrectly, severely compromising the telescope's capabilities. However, after a servicing mission in 1993, the telescope was restored to its intended quality. Hubble's position outside the Earth's atmosphere allows it to take extremely sharp images with almost no background light. Hubble's Ultra Deep Field image, for instance, is the most detailed visible-light image of the universe's most distant objects ever made. Many Hubble observations have led to breakthroughs in astrophysics, such as accurately determining the rate of expansion of the universe. For further information about Challengers mission and crew, see STS-51-L. The iconic image of Space Shuttle Challengers smoke plume after its breakup 73 seconds after launch. ... Air redirects here. ... In astronomy, background commonly refers to the incoming light from an apparently empty part of the night sky. ... This high-resolution image of the HUDF includes galaxies of various ages, sizes, shapes, and colors. ... Visible light redirects here. ... Spiral Galaxy ESO 269-57 Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe, including the physical properties (luminosity, density, temperature, and chemical composition) of celestial objects such as stars, galaxies, and the interstellar medium, as well as their interactions. ... This box: Hubbles law is a statement in physical cosmology which states that the redshift in light coming from distant galaxies is proportional to their distance. ...

The Hubble is the only telescope ever designed to be serviced in space by astronauts. To date, there have been four servicing missions. Servicing Mission 1 took place in December 1993 when Hubble's imaging flaw was corrected. Servicing missions 2, 3, and 4 repaired various sub-systems and replaced many of the observing instruments with more modern and capable versions. However, following the 2003 Columbia Space Shuttle disaster, the fifth servicing mission, initially planned for 2004, was canceled on safety grounds. After spirited public discussion, NASA reconsidered this position. In October 2006, NASA administrator Mike Griffin gave the green light for a final Hubble servicing mission, now planned for August 2008. For further information about Columbias mission and crew, see STS-107. ... For other people with the same name, see Michael Griffin (disambiguation). ...

The planned repairs to the Hubble will allow the telescope to function until at least 2013, when its successor, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), is due to be launched. The JWST will be far superior to Hubble for many astronomical research programs, but will only observe in infrared, so it will not replace Hubble's ability to observe in the visible and ultraviolet parts of the spectrum. The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is a planned space infrared observatory, intended to be a significant improvement on the aging Hubble Space Telescope. ... For other uses, see Infrared (disambiguation). ...

Conception, design and aims

Proposals and precursors

In 1923, German scientist Hermann Oberth, one of the three fathers of modern rocketry (Oberth, Robert Goddard and Konstantin Tsiolkovsky), published "Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen" ("The Rocket into Planetary Space"), which mentioned how a telescope could be propelled into Earth orbit by a rocket.^[4] Robert Goddard is the name of several notable individuals, including: Robert Goddard (scientist) (1882-1945), one of the pioneers of modern rocketry. ... Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky (ÐšÐ¾Ð½ÑÑ‚Ð°Ð½Ñ‚Ð¸Ð½ ÐÐ´ÑƒÐ°Ñ€Ð´Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡ Ð¦Ð¸Ð¾Ð»ÐºÐ¾Ð²ÑÐºÐ¸Ð¹, Konstanty CioÅ‚kowski) (September 5, 1857 new style â€“ September 19, 1935) was a Russian and Soviet rocket scientist and pioneer of cosmonautics who spent most of his life in a log house on the outskirts of the Russian town of Kaluga. ...

The history of the Hubble Space Telescope can be traced back as far as 1946, when the astronomer Lyman Spitzer wrote the paper Astronomical advantages of an extraterrestrial observatory.^[5] In it, he discussed the two main advantages that a space-based observatory would have over ground-based telescopes. First, the angular resolution (smallest separation at which objects can be clearly distinguished) would be limited only by diffraction, rather than by the turbulence in the atmosphere, which causes stars to twinkle and is known to astronomers as seeing. At that time ground-based telescopes were limited to resolutions of 0.5–1.0 arcseconds, compared to a theoretical diffraction-limited resolution of about 0.05 arcsec for a telescope with a mirror 2.5 m in diameter. Second, a space-based telescope could observe infrared and ultraviolet light, which are strongly absorbed by the atmosphere. Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 472 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (1417 Ã— 1800 pixel, file size: 2. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 472 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (1417 Ã— 1800 pixel, file size: 2. ... Galileo is often referred to as the Father of Modern Astronomy. ... Lyman Spitzer Lyman Spitzer, Jr. ... Angular resolution describes the resolving power of any optical device such as a telescope, a microscope, a camera, or an eye. ... The intensity pattern formed on a screen by diffraction from a square aperture Diffraction refers to various phenomena associated with wave propagation, such as the bending, spreading and interference of waves passing by an object or aperture that disrupts the wave. ... Schematic diagram illustrating how optical wavefronts from a distant star may be perturbed by a turbulent layer in the atmosphere. ... A second of arc or arcsecond is a unit of angular measurement which comprises one-sixtieth of an arcminute, or 1/3600 of a degree of arc or 1/1296000 â‰ˆ 7. ... A mirror, reflecting a vase. ... For other uses, see Infrared (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Ultraviolet (disambiguation). ...

Spitzer devoted much of his career to pushing for a space telescope to be developed. In 1962 a report by the United States National Academy of Sciences recommended the development of a space telescope as part of the space program, and in 1965 Spitzer was appointed as head of a committee given the task of defining the scientific objectives for a large space telescope.^[6] President Harding and the National Academy of Sciences at the White House, Washington, DC, April 1921 The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is a corporation in the United States whose members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. ... Edward White on a spacewalk during the Gemini 4 mission. ...

Space-based astronomy had begun on a very small scale following World War II, as scientists made use of the developments in rocket technology that had taken place. The first ultraviolet spectrum of the Sun was obtained in 1946.^[7] An orbiting solar telescope was launched in 1962 by the UK as part of the Ariel space program, and 1966 saw National Aeronautics and Space Administration's (NASA) launch of the first Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO) mission. OAO-1's battery failed after three days, terminating the mission. It was followed by OAO-2, which carried out ultraviolet observations of stars and galaxies from its launch in 1968 until 1972, well beyond its original planned lifetime of one year.^[8] Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki TÅjÅ Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... This article is about vehicles powered by rocket engines. ... Although some radiations are marked as N for no in the diagram, some waves do in fact penetrate the atmosphere, although extremely minimally compared to the other radiations The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of all possible electromagnetic radiation. ... Sol redirects here. ... For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation). ... OAO-3 in the clean room The Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO) satellites were a series of four space observatories launched by NASA between 1966 and 1972, which provided the first high-quality observations of many objects in ultraviolet light. ... This article is about the astronomical object. ... For other uses, see Galaxy (disambiguation). ...

The OAO missions demonstrated the important role space-based observations could play in astronomy, and 1968 saw the development by NASA of firm plans for a space-based reflecting telescope with a mirror 3 m in diameter, known provisionally as the Large Orbiting Telescope or Large Space Telescope (LST), with a launch slated for 1979. These plans emphasized the need for manned maintenance missions to the telescope to ensure such a costly program had a lengthy working life, and the concurrent development of plans for the reusable Space Shuttle indicated that the technology to allow this was soon to become available.^[9] 24 inch convertible Newtonian/Cassegrain reflecting telescope on display at the Franklin Institute. ... This article is about the space vehicle. ...

Quest for funding

The continuing success of the OAO program encouraged increasingly strong consensus within the astronomical community that the LST should be a major goal. In 1970 NASA established two committees, one to plan the engineering side of the space telescope project, and the other to determine the scientific goals of the mission. Once these had been established, the next hurdle for NASA was to obtain funding for the instrument, which would be far more costly than any Earth-based telescope. The US Congress questioned many aspects of the proposed budget for the telescope and forced cuts in the budget for the planning stages, which at the time consisted of very detailed studies of potential instruments and hardware for the telescope. In 1974, public spending cuts instigated by Gerald Ford led to Congress cutting all funding for the telescope project.^[10] For other uses, see Consensus (disambiguation). ... Type Bicameral Houses Senate House of Representatives President of the Senate President pro tempore Dick Cheney, (R) since January 20, 2001 Robert C. Byrd, (D) since January 4, 2007 Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi, (D) since January 4, 2007 Members 535 plus 4 Delegates and 1 Resident Commissioner Political... Public finance (government finance) is the field of economics that deals with budgeting the revenues and expenditures of a public sector entity, usually government. ... For other persons named Gerald Ford, see Gerald Ford (disambiguation). ...

In response to this, a nationwide lobbying effort was coordinated among astronomers. Many astronomers met congressmen and senators in person, and large scale letter-writing campaigns were organized. The National Academy of Sciences published a report emphasizing the need for a space telescope, and eventually the Senate agreed to half of the budget that had originally been approved by Congress.^[11] Type Bicameral Speaker of the House of Representatives House Majority Leader Nancy Pelosi, (D) since January 4, 2007 Steny Hoyer, (D) since January 4, 2007 House Minority Leader John Boehner, (R) since January 4, 2007 Members 435 plus 4 Delegates and 1 Resident Commissioner Political groups Democratic Party Republican Party... Type Upper House President of the Senate Richard B. Cheney, R since January 20, 2001 President pro tempore Robert C. Byrd, D since January 4, 2007 Members 100 Political groups Democratic Party Republican Party Last elections November 7, 2006 Meeting place Senate Chamber United States Capitol Washington, DC United States...

The funding issues led to something of a reduction in the scale of the project, with the proposed mirror diameter reduced from 3 m to 2.4 m, both to cut costs and to allow a more compact and effective configuration for the telescope hardware. A proposed precursor 1.5 m space telescope to test the systems to be used on the main satellite was dropped, and budgetary concerns also prompted collaboration with the European Space Agency. ESA agreed to provide funding and supply one of the first generation instruments for the telescope, as well as the solar cells that would power it, and staff to work on the telescope in the United States, in return for European astronomers being guaranteed at least 15% of the observing time on the telescope. Congress eventually approved funding of US$36,000,000 for 1978, and the design of the LST began in earnest, aiming for a launch date of 1983.^[12] In 1983 the telescope was named^[13] after Edwin Hubble, who made one of the greatest scientific breakthroughs of the 20th century when he discovered that the universe was expanding.^[14] ESA redirects here. ... A solar cell, made from a monocrystalline silicon wafer A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... USD redirects here. ... Edwin Powell Hubble (November 20, 1889 â€“ September 28, 1953) was an American astronomer. ... For other uses, see Universe (disambiguation). ... Accelerating universe is a term for the idea that our universe is undergoing divergent rapid expansion. ...

Construction and engineering

Once the Space Telescope project had been given the go-ahead, work on the program was divided between many institutions. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) was given responsibility for the design, development, and construction of the telescope, while the Goddard Space Flight Center was given overall control of the scientific instruments and ground-control centre for the mission. Marshall commissioned the optics company PerkinElmer to design and build the Optical Telescope Assembly (OTA) and Fine Guidance Sensors for the space telescope. Lockheed was commissioned to construct the spacecraft in which the telescope would be housed.^[15] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... PerkinElmer, Inc. ... Nickname: Located in Fairfield County, Connecticut Coordinates: , NECTA Region Incorporated (town) 1702 Incorporated (city) 1889 Consolidated 1965 Government - Type Mayor-council - Mayor Mark D. Boughton (R) Area - City 114. ... Official language(s) none (de facto English) Capital Hartford Largest city Bridgeport[2] Largest metro area Hartford Metro Area[3] Area Ranked 48th in the US - Total 5,543[4] sq mi (14,356 kmÂ²) - Width 70 miles (113 km) - Length 110 miles (177 km) - % water 12. ... Aerial view of the test area at Marshall Space Flight Center The George C. Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) is a lead NASA center for propulsion, Space Shuttle propulsion, external fuel tank, crew training and payloads, International Space Station (ISS) design and construction, for computers, networks, and information management. ... Aerial view of Goddard Space Flight Center. ... PerkinElmer, Inc. ... The Lockheed SR-71 was remarkably advanced for its time and remains unsurpassed in many areas of performance. ...

Optical Telescope Assembly (OTA)

The mirror and optical systems of the telescope were the most crucial and complex part, and were designed to exacting specifications. Telescopes typically have mirrors polished to an accuracy of about a tenth of the wavelength of visible light, but because the Space Telescope was to be used for observations ranging from ultraviolet to near-infrared with ten times better resolution than the best previous telescopes, its mirror needed to be polished to an accuracy of 1/65 of the wavelength of red light (632 nm), or about 10 nanometres.^[16] In the fields of science, engineering, industry and statistics, accuracy is the degree of conformity of a measured or calculated quantity to its actual (true) value. ... For other uses, see Wavelength (disambiguation). ... The optical spectrum (light or visible spectrum) is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is visible to the human eye. ... For other uses, see Ultraviolet (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Infrared (disambiguation). ... This article is about the unit of length. ...

Perkin-Elmer intended to use extremely sophisticated computer-controlled polishing machines to grind the mirror to the required shape^[17], but in case their cutting-edge technology ran into difficulties, NASA demanded that PE sub-contract to Kodak to construct a back-up mirror using traditional mirror-polishing techniques.^[18] (The team of Kodak and Itek also bid on the original mirror polishing work. Their bid called for the two companies to double-check each other's work, which would have almost certainly caught the polishing error that later caused such problems.^[19]) The Kodak mirror is now on permanent display at the Smithsonian Institution.^[20]. An Itek mirror built as part of the effort is now used in the 2.4 m telescope at the Magdalena Ridge Observatory. Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is the use of computer-based software tools that assist engineers and machinists in manufacturing or prototyping product components. ... Eastman Kodak Company (NYSE: EK) is a large multinational public company producing photographic equipment. ... The Smithsonian Institution Building or Castle on the National Mall serves as the Institutions headquarters. ...

Construction of the Perkin-Elmer mirror began in 1979, using ultra-low expansion glass. To keep the mirror's weight to a minimum it consisted of inch-thick top and bottom plates sandwiching a honeycomb lattice. Mirror polishing continued until May 1981. NASA reports at the time questioned Perkin-Elmer's managerial structure, and the polishing began to slip behind schedule and over budget. To save money, NASA halted work on the back-up mirror and put the launch date of the telescope back to October 1984.^[21] The mirror was completed by the end of 1981 with the addition of a reflective coating of aluminium 65 nm thick and a protective coating of magnesium fluoride 25 nm thick.^[22] This article is about the material. ... Honeycomb Honeycombs on a Sacred fig tree A honeycomb is a mass of hexagonal wax cells built by honey bees in their nests to contain their larvae and stores of honey and pollen. ... Aluminum redirects here. ... Magnesium fluoride (MgF2) is a white crystalline salt composed of one magnesium ion and two fluoride ions, and is used in the electrolysis of aluminium ore. ...

However, doubts continued to be expressed about Perkin-Elmer's competence on a project of this importance as their budget and timescale for producing the rest of the OTA continued to inflate. In response to a schedule described as "unsettled and changing daily", NASA postponed the launch date of the telescope until April 1985. Perkin-Elmer's schedules continued to slip at a rate of about one month per quarter, and at times delays reached one day for each day of work. NASA was forced to postpone the launch date until first March and then September 1986. By this time the total project budget had risen to US$1.175 billion.^[15]

Spacecraft systems

The spacecraft in which the telescope and instruments were to be housed was another major engineering challenge. It would have to adequately withstand frequent passages from direct sunlight into the darkness of Earth's shadow, which would generate major changes in temperature, while being stable enough to allow the extremely accurate pointing of the telescope that would be required. A shroud of multi-layer insulation keeps the temperature within the telescope stable, and surrounds a light aluminum shell in which the telescope and instruments sit. Within the shell, a graphite-epoxy frame keeps the working parts of the telescope firmly aligned.^[23] Download high resolution version (905x600, 155 KB)Early stages of Hubble construction at Lockheed, 1980. ... Download high resolution version (905x600, 155 KB)Early stages of Hubble construction at Lockheed, 1980. ... Shadows on pavement A shadow is a region of darkness where light is blocked. ... Closeup of Multi-layer insulation from a satellite. ... Tail of a RC helicopter, made of CFRP Carbon fiber reinforced plastic or (CFRP or CRP), is a very strong, light and expensive composite material or fiber reinforced plastic. ...

While construction of the spacecraft in which the telescope and instruments would be housed proceeded somewhat more smoothly than the construction of the OTA, Lockheed still experienced some budget and schedule slippage, and by the summer of 1985, construction of the spacecraft was 30% over budget and three months behind schedule. An MSFC report said that Lockheed tended to rely on NASA directions rather than take their own initiative in the construction.^[15]

Ground support

The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) is responsible for the scientific operation of the telescope and delivery of data products to astronomers. STScI is operated by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) and is physically located on the Homewood campus of Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, which is one of the 32 U.S. universities and seven international affiliates that make up the AURA consortium. STScI was established in 1983 after something of a power struggle between NASA and the scientific community at large. NASA had wanted to keep this function "in-house", but scientists wanted it to be based in an academic establishment.^[24] The Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (ST-ECF), established at Garching bei München near Munich in 1984, provides similar support for European astronomers. The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) is an organization founded by NASA to manage and direct research done with the Hubble Space Telescope. ... The Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) is an organization founded by NASA to manage and direct research done with the Hubble Space Telescope. ... The Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA) is a consortium of universities and other institutions. ... The Johns Hopkins University, founded in 1876, is a private institution of higher learning located in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. ... Baltimore redirects here. ... Academia is a collective term for the scientific and cultural community engaged in higher education and research, taken as a whole. ... The Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (STECF) is an institution which provides support primarily for European observers using the Hubble Space Telescope. ... Garching bei MÃ¼nchen or Garching is a town in Bavaria, Germany near Munich. ... For other uses, see Munich (disambiguation). ...

Engineering support is provided by NASA and contractor personnel at the Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, 48 kilometres south of the STScI. Hubble's operation is monitored 24 hours per day by four teams of flight controllers who make up Hubble's Flight Operations Team.^[25] Location in Maryland Coordinates: County Prince Georges County Incorporated 1937 Government - Mayor Judith F. Davis (D) Area - City 15. ... Official language(s) None (English, de facto) Capital Annapolis Largest city Baltimore Largest metro area Baltimore-Washington Metropolitan Area Area Ranked 42nd - Total 12,407 sq mi (32,133 kmÂ²) - Width 101 miles (145 km) - Length 249 miles (400 km) - % water 21 - Latitude 37Â° 53â€² N to 39Â° 43â€² N...

Challenger disaster

In early 1986, the planned launch date of October that year looked feasible, but the Challenger disaster brought the U.S. space program to a halt, grounding the Space Shuttle fleet and forcing the launch of Hubble to be postponed for several years. The telescope had to be kept in a clean room, powered up and purged with nitrogen, until a launch could be rescheduled. This costly situation (about $6 million per month) pushed the overall costs of the project even higher. On the other hand, engineers used this time to perform extensive tests, swap out a possible failure prone battery, and make other improvements.^[26] For further information about Challengers mission and crew, see STS-51-L. The iconic image of Space Shuttle Challengers smoke plume after its breakup 73 seconds after launch. ...

Eventually, following the resumption of Shuttle flights in 1988, the launch of the telescope was scheduled for 1990. Finally, on 24 April 1990, shuttle mission STS-31 saw Discovery launch the telescope successfully into its planned orbit. is the 114th day of the year (115th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the year. ... The 35th Space Shuttle mission, STS-31 using Space Shuttle Discovery, launched April 24, 1990, and returned April 29. ... Space Shuttle Discovery (Orbiter Vehicle Designation: OV-103) is one of the three currently operational spacecraft in the Space Shuttle fleet of NASA, the space agency of the United States. ...

From its original total cost estimate of about US$400 million, the telescope had by now cost over $2.5 billion to construct. Hubble's cumulative costs up to this day are estimated to be several times higher still, with U.S. expenditure estimated at between $4.5 and $6 billion, and Europe's financial contribution at €593 million (1999 estimate).^[27]

Instruments

When launched, the HST carried five scientific instruments: the Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WF/PC), Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS), High Speed Photometer (HSP), Faint Object Camera (FOC) and the Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS). WF/PC was a high-resolution imaging device primarily intended for optical observations. It was built by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and incorporated a set of 48 filters isolating spectral lines of particular astrophysical interest. The instrument contained eight CCD chips divided between two cameras, each using four CCDs. The "wide field camera" (WFC) covered an angularly large field at the expense of resolution, while the "planetary camera" (PC) took images at a longer effective focal length than the WF chips, giving it a greater magnification. Download high resolution version (1500x992, 1878 KB)Shuttle mission STS 31 lifts off carrying the Hubble Space Telescope into orbit. ... Download high resolution version (1500x992, 1878 KB)Shuttle mission STS 31 lifts off carrying the Hubble Space Telescope into orbit. ... The 35th Space Shuttle mission, STS-31 using Space Shuttle Discovery, launched April 24, 1990, and returned April 29. ... The Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WFPC) was a camera installed on the Hubble Space Telescope. ... The Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS or HRS) was a spectrograph installed on the Hubble Space Telescope. ... The High Speed Photometer (HSP) was a scientific instrument installed on the Hubble Space Telescope. ... The Faint Object Camera (FOC) was a camera installed on the Hubble Space Telescope until 2002. ... The Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS) was a spectrograph installed on the Hubble Space Telescope. ... The Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WFPC) was a camera installed on the Hubble Space Telescope. ... The Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS or HRS) was a spectrograph installed on the Hubble Space Telescope. ... The High Speed Photometer (HSP) was a scientific instrument installed on the Hubble Space Telescope. ... The Faint Object Camera (FOC) was a camera installed on the Hubble Space Telescope until 2002. ... The Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS) was a spectrograph installed on the Hubble Space Telescope. ... For the singer/songwriter, see Jon Peter Lewis. ... Coloured and Neutral Density filters An optical filter is a device which selectively transmits light having certain properties (often, a particular range of wavelengths, that is, range of colours of light), while blocking the remainder. ... A spectral line is a dark or bright line in an otherwise uniform and continuous spectrum, resulting from an excess or deficiency of photons in a narrow frequency range, compared with the nearby frequencies. ... This article is about focal length related to lenses and systems of lenses. ...

The GHRS was a spectrograph designed to operate in the ultraviolet. It was built by the Goddard Space Flight Center and could achieve a spectral resolution of 90,000.^[28] Also optimized for ultraviolet observations were the FOC and FOS, both of which were also capable of the highest spatial resolution of any instrument on Hubble. Rather than CCDs these three instruments used photon-counting digicons as their detectors. FOC was constructed by ESA, while the Martin Marietta corporation built the FOS. For Acoustic uses in spectrographs of sound waves, see below. ... The spectral resolution or resolving power of a spectrograph is a measure of its power to resolve features in the electromagnetic spectrum. ... In modern physics the photon is the elementary particle responsible for electromagnetic phenomena. ... Martin Marietta Corporation was founded in 1961 through the merger of The Martin Company and American-Marietta Corporation. ...

The final instrument was the HSP, designed and built at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. It was optimized for visible and ultraviolet light observations of variable stars and other astronomical objects varying in brightness. It could take up to 100,000 measurements per second with a photometric accuracy of about 2% or better.^[29] The University of Wisconsinâ€“Madison is a public research university located in Madison, Wisconsin. ... This article or section contains a plot summary that is overly long or excessively detailed. ... Photometry is a technique of astronomy concerned with measuring the flux, or intensity of an astronomical objects electromagnetic radiation. ...

HST's guidance system can also be used as a scientific instrument. Its three Fine Guidance Sensors (FGS) are primarily used to keep the telescope accurately pointed during an observation, but can also be used to carry out extremely accurate astrometry; measurements accurate to within 0.0003 arcseconds have been achieved.^[30] One of the three Fine Guidance Sensors photographed during Second Servicing Mission in 1997 The Fine Guidance Sensor (FGS) is an interferometric instrument on board the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) that provides high-precision pointing information as input to the observatorys attitude control systems. ... Illustration of the use of optical wavelength interferometry to determine precise positions of stars. ...

Flawed mirror

Within weeks of the launch of the telescope, the images returned showed that there was a serious problem with the optical system. Although the first images appeared to be sharper than ground-based images, the telescope failed to achieve a final sharp focus, and the best image quality obtained was drastically lower than expected. Images of point sources spread out over a radius of more than one arcsecond, instead of having a point spread function concentrated within a circle 0.1 arcsec in diameter as had been specified in the design criteria.^[31] More details can be seen in graphs showing the mis-figured PSFs, as compared to post-correction and ground based PSFs. Look up point source in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Image formation in a confocal microscope: central longitudinal (XZ) slice. ...

Analysis of the flawed images showed that the cause of the problem was that the primary mirror had been ground to the wrong shape. Although it was probably the most precisely figured mirror ever made, with variations from the prescribed curve of no more than 1/20 of the wavelength of light, it was too flat at the edges. The mirror was barely 2.3 micrometres out from the required shape, but the difference was catastrophic, introducing severe spherical aberration, a flaw in which light reflecting off the edge of a mirror focuses on a different point from the light reflecting off its center.^[32] For other uses, see Wavelength (disambiguation). ... A micrometre (American spelling: micrometer, symbol Âµm) is an SI unit of length equal to one millionth of a metre, or about a tenth of the diameter of a droplet of mist or fog. ... Focal plane Longitudinal sections In optics, spherical aberration is an image imperfection that occurs due to the increased refraction of light rays that occurs when rays strike a lens or mirror near its edge, in comparison with those that strike nearer the center. ... An image that is partially in focus, but mostly out of focus in varying degrees. ...

The effect of the mirror flaw on scientific observations depended on the particular observation — the core of the aberrated PSF was sharp enough to permit uniquely high-resolution observations of bright objects, and spectroscopy was largely unaffected. However, the loss of light to the large out of focus halo severely reduced the usefulness of the telescope for faint objects or high contrast imaging. This meant that nearly all of the cosmological programs were essentially impossible since they required observation of exceptionally faint objects.^[33] NASA and the telescope became the butt of many jokes, and the project was popularly regarded as a white elephant. (For instance, in the movie The Naked Gun 2½: The Smell of Fear, the Hubble was pictured with the Titanic, the Hindenburg, and the Edsel).^[34] For other uses, see White elephant (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Titanic (disambiguation). ... The Hindenburg redirects here. ... The Edsel was a make of automobile manufactured by the Ford Motor Company during the 1958, 1959, and 1960 model years. ...

Origin of the problem

Working backwards from images of point sources, astronomers determined that the conic constant of the mirror was −1.01324, instead of the intended −1.00230.^[35] The same number was also derived by analyzing the null correctors (instruments which accurately measure the curvature of a polished surface) used by Perkin-Elmer to figure the mirror, as well as by analyzing interferograms obtained during ground testing of the mirror. Hubble Space Telescope stellar image showing light spread over a wide area instead of concentrated on a few pixels as planned. ... Hubble Space Telescope stellar image showing light spread over a wide area instead of concentrated on a few pixels as planned. ... For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation). ... ESA redirects here. ... The conic constant is a quantity describing conic sections, and is represented by the letter K. It is given by K=-e², where e is the eccentricity of the conic section. ... Interference of two circular waves - Wavelength (decreasing bottom to top) and Wave centers distance (increasing to the right). ...

A commission headed by Lew Allen, director of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, was established to determine how the error could have arisen. The Allen Commission found that the null corrector used by Perkin-Elmer had been incorrectly assembled. Its field lens had then been wrongly spaced by 1.3 mm.^[36] General Lew Allen, Jr. ... For the singer/songwriter, see Jon Peter Lewis. ...

During the polishing of the mirror, Perkin-Elmer had analyzed its surface with two other null correctors, both of which (correctly) indicated that the mirror was suffering from spherical aberration. The company ignored these test results as it believed that the two null correctors were less accurate than the primary device which was reporting that the mirror was perfectly figured.^[37]

The commission blamed the failings primarily on Perkin-Elmer. Relations between NASA and the optics company had been severely strained during the telescope construction due to frequent schedule slippage and cost overruns. NASA found that Perkin-Elmer had not regarded the telescope mirror as a crucial part of their business and were also secure in the knowledge that NASA could not take its business elsewhere once the polishing had begun. While the commission heavily criticized Perkin-Elmer for these managerial failings, NASA was also criticized for not picking up on the quality control shortcomings such as relying totally on test results from a single instrument.^[38]

Design of a solution

The design of the telescope had always incorporated servicing missions, and astronomers immediately began to seek potential solutions to the problem which could be applied at the first servicing mission, scheduled for 1993. While Kodak and Itek had each ground back-up mirrors for Hubble, it would have been impossible to replace the mirror in orbit, and too expensive and time-consuming to bring the telescope temporarily back to Earth for a refit. Instead, the fact that the mirror had been ground so precisely to the wrong shape led to the design of new optical components with exactly the same error but in the opposite sense, to be added to the telescope at the servicing mission, effectively acting as "spectacles" to correct the spherical aberration.^[40] Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (2848 Ã— 2136 pixel, file size: 3. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (2848 Ã— 2136 pixel, file size: 3. ... National Air and Space Museum exterior The National Air and Space Museum (NASM) of the Smithsonian Institution is a museum in Washington, D.C., United States, and is the most popular of the Smithsonian museums. ... Eastman Kodak Company (NYSE: EK) is a large multinational public company producing photographic equipment. ... A pair of modern glasses Glasses, also called eyeglasses or spectacles are frames, bearing lenses worn in front of the eyes normally for vision correction, eye protection, or for protection from UV rays. ...

Because of the way the instruments were designed, two different sets of correctors were required. The design of the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2, already planned to replace the existing WF/PC, included relay mirrors to direct light onto the eight separate CCD chips making up its two cameras. An inverse error built into their surfaces could completely cancel the aberration of the primary. However, the other instruments lacked any intermediate surfaces which could be figured in this way, and so required an external correction device.^[41] A Hubble Space Telescope image of the Hubble Deep Field showing the characteristic stairstep composition of WFPC2 images The Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) is a camera installed on the Hubble Space Telescope. ... A specially developed CCD used for ultraviolet imaging in a wire bonded package. ...

COSTAR

The system designed to correct the spherical aberration for light focused at the FOC, FOS and GHRS was called the "Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement" (COSTAR) and consisted essentially of two mirrors in the light path, one of which would be figured to correct the aberration.^[42] To fit the COSTAR system onto the telescope, one of the other instruments had to be removed, and astronomers selected the High Speed Photometer to be sacrificed.^[43] COSTAR being inserted into Hubble during First Servicing Mission. ... COSTAR being inserted into Hubble during First Servicing Mission. ...

During the first three years of the Hubble mission, before the optical corrections could be fitted, the telescope still carried out a large number of observations. Spectroscopic observations in particular were not too badly affected by the aberration, but many imaging projects were canceled or deferred, given the telescope's poor performance on faint objects. Despite the setbacks, the first three years saw numerous scientific advances as astronomers worked to optimize the results obtained using sophisticated image processing techniques such as deconvolution.^[44] UPIICSA IPN - Binary image Image processing is any form of information processing for which the input is an image, such as photographs or frames of video; the output is not necessarily an image, but can be for instance a set of features of the image. ... Deconvolution is a process used to reverse the effects of convolution on recorded data. ...

Servicing missions and new instruments

Servicing Mission 1

The telescope had always been designed so that it could be regularly serviced, but after the problems with the mirror came to light, the first servicing mission assumed a much greater importance, as the astronauts would have to carry out extensive work on the telescope to install the corrective optics. The seven astronauts selected for the mission were trained intensively in the use of the hundred or so specialized tools which would need to be used. The mission STS-61 of the Space Shuttle Endeavour took place in December 1993, and involved installation of several instruments and other equipment over a total of 10 days. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (992x986, 913 KB)Astronauts work on installing Hubbles corrective optics during Servicing Mission 1. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (992x986, 913 KB)Astronauts work on installing Hubbles corrective optics during Servicing Mission 1. ... This article is about the Space Shuttle mission STS-61, flown in 1993. ... Image File history File links Improvement_in_Hubble_images_after_SMM1. ... Image File history File links Improvement_in_Hubble_images_after_SMM1. ... For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation). ... ESA redirects here. ... This article is about the Space Shuttle mission STS-61, flown in 1993. ... This page discusses common devices known as tools, for other meanings see Tool (disambiguation) Modern hammer A tool is, among other things, a device that provides a mechanical or mental advantage in accomplishing a task. ...

Most importantly, the High Speed Photometer was replaced with the COSTAR corrective optics package, and WFPC was replaced with the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) with its internal optical correction system. In addition, the solar arrays and their drive electronics were replaced, as well as four of the gyroscopes used in the telescope pointing system, two electrical control units and other electrical components, and two magnetometers. The onboard computers were upgraded, and finally, the telescope's orbit was boosted, to compensate for the orbital decay from 3 years of drag in the tenuous upper atmosphere.^[45] The High Speed Photometer (HSP) was a scientific instrument installed on the Hubble Space Telescope. ... COSTAR being inserted into Hubble during First Servicing Mission. ... A Hubble Space Telescope image of the Hubble Deep Field showing the characteristic stairstep composition of WFPC2 images The Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) is a camera installed on the Hubble Space Telescope. ... A photovoltaic module is composed of individual PV cells. ... A gyroscope For other uses, see Gyroscope (disambiguation). ... An object moving through a gas or liquid experiences a force in direction opposite to its motion. ...

On January 13, 1994, NASA declared the mission a complete success and showed the first of many much sharper images.^[46] The mission had been one of the most complex ever undertaken, involving five lengthy periods of extravehicular activity and its resounding success was an enormous boon for NASA, as well as for the astronomers who now had a fully capable space telescope. is the 13th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1994 (MCMXCIV) The year 1994 was designated as the International Year of the Family and the International Year of the Sport and the Olympic Ideal by the United Nations. ... For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Servicing Mission 2

Servicing Mission 2 Discovery (STS-82) in February 1997 replaced the GHRS and the FOS with the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) and the Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS), replaced an Engineering and Science Tape Recorder with a new Solid State Recorder, repaired thermal insulation and again boosted Hubble's orbit.^[47] NICMOS contained a heat sink of solid nitrogen to reduce the thermal noise from the instrument, but shortly after it was installed, an unexpected thermal expansion resulted in part of the heat sink coming into contact with an optical baffle. This led to an increased warming rate for the instrument and reduced its original expected lifetime of 4.5 years to about 2 years.^[48] This is a mission of the United States Space Shuttle // Crew Kenneth D. Bowersox (4), - Commander Scott J. Horowitz (2), Pilot Mark C. Lee (4), Mission Specialist Steven A. Hawley (4), Mission Specialist Gregory J. Harbaugh (4), Mission Specialist Steven L. Smith (2), Mission Specialist Joseph R. Tanner (2), Mission... The Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) is a spectrograph installed on the Hubble Space Telescope, operating from 1997 to 2004. ... The Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS) is a scientific instrument for infrared astronomy, installed on the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), operating from 1997 to 1999, and from 2002 to the present. ... This article is about the substance or device. ... General Name, symbol, number nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 15, 2, p Appearance colorless gas Standard atomic weight 14. ... Johnson-Nyquist noise (sometimes thermal noise, Johnson noise or Nyquist noise) is the noise generated by the equilibrium fluctuations of the electric current inside an electrical conductor, which happens without any applied voltage, due to the random thermal motion of the charge carriers (the electrons). ... In physics, thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change in volume in response to a change in temperature. ...

Servicing Mission 3A

Servicing Mission 3A Discovery (STS-103) took place in December 1999, split off from Servicing Mission 3 after three of the six onboard gyroscopes had failed. (A fourth failed a few weeks before the mission, rendering the telescope incapable of performing science observations). The mission replaced all six gyroscopes, replaced a Fine Guidance Sensor and the computer, installed a Voltage/temperature Improvement Kit (VIK) to prevent battery overcharging, and replaced thermal insulation blankets.^[49] The new computer was based on a radiation hardened Intel 486 and permits some computing tasks that were previously performed by computers on the ground to be handled on board the spacecraft. This is a mission of the United States Space Shuttle. ... One of the three Fine Guidance Sensors photographed during Second Servicing Mission in 1997 The Fine Guidance Sensor (FGS) is an interferometric instrument on board the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) that provides high-precision pointing information as input to the observatorys attitude control systems. ... Microelectronics designed for environments with high levels of ionizing radiation have special design challenges. ... Intel i486 DX2- top view The Intel i486 (also called 486 or 80486) is a range of Intel CISC microprocessors which is part of the Intel x86 family of processors. ...

Servicing Mission 3B

Servicing Mission 3B Columbia (STS-109) in March 2002 saw the installation of a new instrument, with the FOC being replaced with the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS), and also saw the revival of NICMOS, which had run out of coolant in 1999. A new cooling system was installed which reduced the instrument's temperature enough for it to be usable again, although it was not as cold as its original design called for.^[48] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... This is a mission of the United States Space Shuttle Crew Scott D. Altman (3), Commander Duane G. Carey (1), Pilot John M. Grunsfeld (4), Payload Commander Nancy J. Currie (4), Mission Specialist James H. Newman (4) , Mission Specialist Richard M. Linnehan (3), Mission Specialist Michael J. Massimino (1), Mission... This is a mission of the United States Space Shuttle Crew Scott D. Altman (3), Commander Duane G. Carey (1), Pilot John M. Grunsfeld (4), Payload Commander Nancy J. Currie (4), Mission Specialist James H. Newman (4) , Mission Specialist Richard M. Linnehan (3), Mission Specialist Michael J. Massimino (1), Mission... Introduction The Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) is a third generation axial instrument aboard the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). ... A coolant, or heat transfer fluid, is a fluid which flows through a device in order to prevent its overheating, transferring the heat produced by the device to other devices that utilize or dissipate it. ...

The mission replaced the solar arrays for the second time. The new arrays were derived from those built for the Iridium comsat system and were only two-thirds the size of the old arrays, resulting in less drag against the tenuous reaches of the upper atmosphere while providing 30% more power. The additional power allowed all instruments on board the Hubble to be run simultaneously, and reduced a vibration problem that occurred when the old, less rigid arrays entered and left direct sunlight. Hubble's Power Distribution Unit was also replaced in order to correct a problem with sticky relays, a procedure that required the complete electrical power down of the spacecraft for the first time since it was launched.^[50] A photovoltaic module is composed of individual PV cells. ... An Iridium phone (without the aerial) The Iridium satellite constellation is a system of 66 active communication satellites and spares around the Earth. ...

The completion of this servicing mission considerably enhanced Hubble's capabilities. The two instruments primarily affected by the mission, ACS and NICMOS, together imaged the Hubble Ultra Deep Field in 2003 to 2004. This high-resolution image of the HUDF includes galaxies of various ages, sizes, shapes, and colors. ...

Scientific results

Important discoveries

Hubble has helped to resolve some long-standing problems in astronomy, as well as turning up results that have required new theories to explain them. Among its primary mission targets was to measure distances to Cepheid variable stars more accurately than ever before, and thus constrain the value of the Hubble constant, the measure of the rate at which the universe is expanding, which is also related to its age. Before the launch of Hubble, estimates of the Hubble constant typically had errors of up to 50%, but Hubble measurements of Cepheid variables in the Virgo Cluster and other distant galaxy clusters provided a measured value with an accuracy of 10%, which is consistent with other more accurate measurements made since Hubble's launch using other techniques.^[51] Download high resolution version (935x920, 128 KB)Star forming pillars in the Eagle Nebula, as seen by the Hubble Space Telescopes WFPC2. ... Download high resolution version (935x920, 128 KB)Star forming pillars in the Eagle Nebula, as seen by the Hubble Space Telescopes WFPC2. ... The Eagle Nebula (also known as Messier Object 16, M16 or NGC 6611), perhaps one of the most famous and easily recognized space objects, is a young open cluster of stars in the constellation Serpens, discovered by Jean-Philippe de Cheseaux in 1745-46. ... For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation). ... ESA redirects here. ... This box: Hubbles law is a statement in physical cosmology which states that the redshift in light coming from distant galaxies is proportional to their distance. ... Cepheid in the Spiral Galaxy M100 A Cepheid variable or Cepheid is a member of a particular class of variable stars, notable for a fairly tight correlation between their period of variability and absolute luminosity. ... Hubbles law is the statement in astronomy that the redshift in light coming from distant galaxies is proportional to their distance. ... In statistics and optimization, the concepts of error and residual are easily confused with each other. ... A sky field near some of the brighter galaxies in the Virgo cluster. ... For other uses, see Galaxy (disambiguation). ...

While Hubble helped to refine estimates of the age of the universe, it also cast doubt on theories about its future. Astronomers from the High-z Supernova Search Team and the Supernova Cosmology Project^[52] used the telescope to observe distant supernovae and uncovered evidence that, far from decelerating under the influence of gravity, the expansion of the universe may in fact be accelerating. This acceleration was later measured more accurately by other ground-based and space-based telescopes which confirmed Hubble's finding, but the cause of this acceleration is currently very poorly understood. The High-z Supernova Search Team is an international cosmology group which uses Type Ia Supernovae to chart the expansion of the universe. ... The Supernova Cosmology Project is one of two research teams that determined the likelihood of an accelerating universe and therefore a positive Cosmological constant. ... For other uses, see Supernova (disambiguation). ... Gravity is a force of attraction that acts between bodies that have mass. ... The deceleration parameter in cosmology is a dimensionless measure of the cosmic acceleration of the expansion of the universe. ...

The high-resolution spectra and images provided by the Hubble have been especially well-suited to establishing the prevalence of black holes in the nuclei of nearby galaxies. While it had been hypothesized in the early 1960s that black holes would be found at the centers of some galaxies, and work in the 1980s identified a number of good black hole candidates, it fell to work conducted with the Hubble to show that black holes are probably common to the centers of all galaxies.^[53]^[54] The Hubble programs further established that the masses of the nuclear black holes and properties of the galaxies are closely related. The legacy of the Hubble programs on black holes in galaxies is thus to demonstrate a deep and profound connection between galaxies and their central black holes. For other uses, see Black hole (disambiguation). ...

The collision of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 with Jupiter in 1994 was fortuitously timed for astronomers, coming just a few months after Servicing Mission 1 had restored Hubble's optical performance. Hubble images of the planet were sharper than any taken since the passage of Voyager 2 in 1979, and were crucial in studying the dynamics of the collision of a comet with Jupiter, an event believed to occur once every few centuries. Hubble Space Telescope image of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, taken on May 17, 1994. ... Hubble Space Telescope image of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9, taken on May 17, 1994. ... For other uses, see Jupiter (disambiguation). ... This article is about the astronomical term. ... Trajectory Voyager 2 is an unmanned interplanetary spacecraft, launched on August 20, 1977. ...

Other major discoveries made using Hubble data include proto-planetary disks (proplyds) in the Orion Nebula^[55]; evidence for the presence of extrasolar planets around sun-like stars^[56]; and the optical counterparts of the still-mysterious gamma ray bursts.^[57] It has also been used to study objects in the outer reaches of the Solar System, including the dwarf planets Pluto^[58] and Eris^[59]. A protoplanetary disc (also protoplanetary disk, proplyd) is an accretion disc surrounding a T Tauri star. ... The Orion Nebula (also known as Messier 42, M42, or NGC 1976) is a diffuse nebula situated south of Orions Belt. ... An extrasolar planet, or exoplanet, is a planet beyond the Solar System. ... The image above shows the optical afterglow of gamma ray burst GRB-990123 taken on January 23, 1999. ... For other uses, see Pluto (disambiguation). ... Absolute magnitude: âˆ’1. ...

A unique legacy of Hubble is Hubble Deep Field and Hubble Ultra Deep Field images, which utilized Hubble's unmatched sensitivity at visible wavelengths to create images of small patches of sky which are the deepest ever obtained at optical wavelengths. The images reveal galaxies billions of light years away, and have generated a wealth of scientific papers, providing a new window on the early Universe. The Hubble Deep Field The Hubble Deep Field (HDF) is the result of a series of observations by the Hubble Space Telescope of a small region of the northern celestial hemisphere. ... This high-resolution image of the HUDF includes galaxies of various ages, sizes, shapes, and colors. ... The Hubble Deep Field The Hubble Deep Field (HDF) is the result of a series of observations by the Hubble Space Telescope of a small region of the northern celestial hemisphere. ... This high-resolution image of the HUDF includes galaxies of various ages, sizes, shapes, and colors. ...

Impact on astronomy

Many objective measures show the positive impact of Hubble data on astronomy. Over 4,000 papers based on Hubble data have been published in peer-reviewed journals, and countless more have appeared in conference proceedings. Looking at papers several years after their publication, about one-third of all astronomy papers have no citations, while only 2% of papers based on Hubble data have no citations. On average, a paper based on Hubble data receives about twice as many citations as papers based on non-Hubble data. Of the 200 papers published each year which receive the most citations, about 10% are based on Hubble data.^[60] Download high resolution version (900x900, 105 KB)Description: Galaxies, galaxies everywhere - as far as NASAs Hubble Space Telescope can see. ... Download high resolution version (900x900, 105 KB)Description: Galaxies, galaxies everywhere - as far as NASAs Hubble Space Telescope can see. ... This high-resolution image of the HUDF includes galaxies of various ages, sizes, shapes, and colors. ... For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation). ... ESA redirects here. ... Proceedings are the collection of academic papers that are published in the context of a conference. ... For other uses, see Citation (disambiguation). ...

Although the HST has clearly had a significant impact on astronomical research, the financial cost of this impact has been large. A study on the relative impacts on astronomy of different sizes of telescopes found that while papers based on HST data generate 15 times as many citations as a 4 m ground-based telescope such as the William Herschel Telescope, the HST costs about 100 times as much to build and maintain.^[61] This article is about the telescope on the Canary Islands. ...

Making the decision between investing in ground-based vs. space-based telescopes in the future is complex. Advances in adaptive optics have extended the high-resolution imaging capabilities of ground-based telescopes to the infrared imaging of faint objects. The usefulness of adaptive optics versus HST observations depends strongly on the particular details of the research questions being asked. The field of view over which high-quality adaptive optics corrections is limited however, especially in optical colors. HST retains the unique ability to do high-resolution optical imaging over a wide field. Even before Hubble's launch, ground-based speckle imaging could provide higher resolution images of bright objects than Hubble can achieve.^[62] A deformable mirror can be used to correct wavefront errors in an astronomical telescope. ... Speckle imaging (also known as video astronomy) describes a range of high-resolution astronomical imaging techniques based either on the shift-and-add (image stacking) method or on speckle interferometry methods. ...

Using the telescope

Anyone can apply for time on the telescope; there are no restrictions on nationality or academic affiliation.^[63] Competition for time on the telescope is extremely intense, and the ratio of time requested to time available (the oversubscription ratio) typically ranges between 6 and 9.^[64]

Calls for proposals are issued roughly annually, with time allocated for a 'cycle' lasting approximately one year. Proposals are divided into several categories; 'general observer' proposals are the most common, covering routine observations. 'Snapshot observations' are those in which targets require only 45 minutes or less of telescope time, including the overheads of acquiring the target and so on; snapshot observations are used to fill in gaps in the telescope schedule which cannot be filled by regular GO programs.^[65]

Astronomers may make 'Target of Opportunity' proposals, in which observations are scheduled if a transient event covered by the proposal occurs during the scheduling cycle. In addition, up to 10% of the telescope time is designated Director's Discretionary (DD) Time. Astronomers can apply to use DD time at any time of year, and it is typically awarded for study of unexpected transient phenomena such as supernovae.^[66] Other uses of DD time have included the observations that led to the production of the Hubble Deep Field and Hubble Ultra Deep Field, and in the first four cycles of telescope time, observations carried out by amateur astronomers (discussed below). For other uses, see Supernova (disambiguation). ... The Hubble Deep Field The Hubble Deep Field (HDF) is the result of a series of observations by the Hubble Space Telescope of a small region of the northern celestial hemisphere. ... This high-resolution image of the HUDF includes galaxies of various ages, sizes, shapes, and colors. ...

Observation scheduling

Scheduling observations for Hubble is not a simple matter.^[67] It is situated in a low-Earth orbit so that it can be reached by the Space Shuttle for servicing missions, but this means that most astronomical targets are occulted by the Earth for slightly less than half of each orbit. Observations cannot take place when the telescope passes through the South Atlantic Anomaly due to elevated radiation levels, and there are also sizable exclusion zones around the Sun (precluding observations of Mercury), Moon and Earth. The solar avoidance angle is about 50°, which is specified to keep sunlight from illuminating any part of the OTA. Earth and Moon avoidance is to keep bright light out of the FGSs and to keep scattered light from entering the instruments. If the FGSs are turned off, however, the Moon and Earth can be observed. Earth observations were used very early in the program to generate flat-fields for the WFPC1 instrument. There is a so-called continuous viewing zone (CVZ), at roughly 90 degrees to the plane of Hubble's orbit, in which targets are not occulted for long periods. Due to the precession of the orbit, the location of the CVZ moves slowly over a period of eight weeks. Because the limb of the Earth is always within about 30° of regions within the CVZ, the brightness of scattered earthshine may be elevated for long periods during CVZ observations. Download high resolution version (1049x933, 183 KB)Diagram showing the altitude of the orbit of the Hubble Space Telescope. ... Download high resolution version (1049x933, 183 KB)Diagram showing the altitude of the orbit of the Hubble Space Telescope. ... In this July, 1997 still frame captured from video, the bright star Aldebaran has just reappeared on the dark limb of the waning crescent moon in this predawn occultation. ... The Van Allen radiation belts and the point of the South Atlantic Anomaly. ... For other uses, see Radiation (disambiguation). ... Sol redirects here. ... This article is about the planet. ... This article is about Earths moon. ... This article is about Earth as a planet. ... Precession redirects here. ... Leonardo da Vincis sketch of crescent Moon with earthshine as part of his Codex Leicester, written between 1506 and 1510. ...

Because Hubble orbits in the upper atmosphere, its orbit changes over time in a way that is not accurately predictable. The density of the upper atmosphere varies according to many factors, and this means that Hubble's predicted position for six weeks' time could be in error by up to 4,000 km. Observation schedules are typically finalized only a few days in advance, as a longer lead time would mean there was a chance that the target would be unobservable by the time it was due to be observed.^[68]

Amateur observations

The first director of the STScI, Riccardo Giacconi, announced in 1986 that he intended to devote some of his Director Discretionary time to allowing amateur astronomers to use the telescope. The total time to be allocated was only a few hours per cycle, but excited great interest among amateur astronomers.^[69] Riccardo Giacconi (born October 6, 1931) is an Italian-born American Nobel Prize-winning astrophysicist. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Skygazing. ...

Proposals for amateur time were stringently peer reviewed by a committee of leading amateur astronomers, and time was awarded only to proposals with genuine scientific merit which did not duplicate proposals made by professionals and which required the unique capabilities of the space telescope. In total, 13 amateur astronomers were awarded time on the telescope, with observations being carried out between 1990 and 1997. One such study was Transition Comets -- UV Search for OH Emissions in Asteroids. After that time, however, budget reductions at STScI made the support of work by amateur astronomers untenable, and no further amateur programs have been carried out.^[70] Peer review (known as refereeing in some academic fields) is a scholarly process used in the publication of manuscripts and in the awarding of funding for research. ... Transition Comets -- UV Search for OH Emissions in Asteroids was a study involving amateur astronomers and the use of the Hubble Space Telescope. ...

Hubble data

Transmission to Earth

Hubble data were initially stored on the spacecraft. When launched, the storage facilities were old-fashioned reel-to-reel tape recorders, but these were replaced by solid state data storage facilities during servicing missions 2 and 3A. From the onboard storage facilities, data are transferred to the ground via the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System, a system of satellites designed so that satellites in low-Earth orbit can communicate with their mission control facilities during about 85% of their orbit. Data are transmitted to the TDRSS ground station and then on to the Goddard Space Flight Center and finally to the Space Telescope Science Institute for archiving.^[71] Sony reel-to-reel tape recorder. ... This article refers to both flash and DRAM-based solid state drives. ... The Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) is a network of communications satellites (each called a Tracking and Data Relay Satellite or TDRS) used by NASA and other United States government agencies. ...

See also

Space telescopes A space observatory is any instrument in outer space which is used for observation of distant planets, galaxies, and other outer space objects. ... NASAs series of Great Observatories satellites were four large, powerful space-based telescopes. ... The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is a planned space infrared observatory, intended to be a significant improvement on the aging Hubble Space Telescope. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

References

^ 2003 Estimate of Hubble re-entry. A planned reboost during SM4 (Final Shuttle Mission to Hubble Similar to Previous Servicing Flights) is expected to extend the telescope's life until around 2020.
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^ H. Oberth (1923). Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen. R. Oldenbourg-Verlay.
^ Spitzer, L., REPORT TO PROJECT RAND: Astronomical Advantages of an Extra-Terrestrial Observatory, reprinted in Astr. Quarterly, volume 7, p. 131, 1990.
^ Lyman Spitzer, Jr.. Caltech.
^ Baum, W. A. and Johnson, F. S. and Oberly, J. J. and Rockwood, C. C. and Strain, C. V. and Tousey, R. (Nov 1946). "Solar Ultraviolet Spectrum to 88 Kilometers". Phys. Rev 70: 781--782. American Physical Society. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.70.781.
^ OAo. NASA.
^ Spitzer, Lyman S (1979), History of the Space Telescope, Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, v. 20, p. 29. PDF version here.
^ Spitzer, History of the Space Telescope, pp. 33-34.
^ Spitzer, History of the Space Telescope, p. 34.
^ Spitzer, History of the Space Telescope, p. 34.
^ A Chronology of the Hubble Space Telescope. NASA.
^ The path to the Hubble Space Telescope. NASA.
^ ^a ^b ^c Dunar A.J., Waring S.P. (1999), Power To Explore—History of Marshall Space Flight Center 1960–1990, U.S. Government Printing Office, ISBN 0-16-058992-4 (Chapter 12, Hubble Space telescope: [1]PDF (260 KiB))
^ Hubble: The Case of the Single-Point Failure. Science Magazine.
^ Dunar, p. 489.
^ The Hubble Space Telescope Optical Systems Failure ReportPDF (5.62 MiB), 1990, Lew Allen, Chairman, NASA Technical Report NASA-TM-103443, page 3-4.
^ Associated Press. LOSING BID OFFERED 2 TESTS ON HUBBLE.
^ HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE STAND-IN GETS STARRING ROLE. September 21, 2001. http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/news-release/releases/2001/h01-185.htm
^ Dunar, p. 496
^ Robberto, M. and Sivaramakrishnan, A. and Bacinski, J.J. and Calzetti, D. and Krist, J.E. and MacKenty, J.W. and Piquero, J. and Stiavelli, M. (2000). "The Performance of HST as an Infrared Telescope". Proc. SPIE 4013: 386--393.
^ HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE SYSTEMS. Goddard Space Flight Center.
^ Hubble Wars, p. 66
^ Hubble Space Telescope Servicing Mission 4 Space Telescope Operations Control Center. NASA.
^ SP-4219: FROM ENGINEERING SCIENCE TO BIG SCIENCE. NASA. Chapter 16, page 371.
^ The European Homepage for the NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope — Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved on 2007-01-10.
^ Brandt J.C. et al (1994), "The Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph: Instrument, goals, and science results", Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, v. 106, p. 890–908
^ Bless R.C., Walter L.E., White R.L. (1992), High Speed Photometer Instrument Handbook, v 3.0, STSci
^ Benedict, G. Fritz; McArthur, Barbara E. (2005), High-precision stellar parallaxes from Hubble Space Telescope fine guidance sensors, Transits of Venus: New Views of the Solar System and Galaxy, Proceedings of IAU Colloquium #196, Ed. D.W. Kurtz. Cambridge University Press, p.333–346
^ Burrows C.J. et al (1991), The imaging performance of the Hubble Space Telescope, Astrophysical Journal, v.369, p.21
^ SP-4219, p. 375
^ SP-4219, p. 375.
^ The Naked Gun 2½: The Smell of Fear. Internet Movie Database.
^ Allen, The Hubble Space Telescope Optical Systems Failure Report, appendix E.
^ Allen, The Hubble Space Telescope Optical Systems Failure Report, chapter VII. The spacing of the field lens in the corrector was to have been done by laser measurements off the end of an invar bar. Instead of illuminating the end of the bar, however, the laser in fact was reflected from a worn spot on a black-anodized metal cap placed over the end of the bar to isolate its center (visible through a hole in the cap). The technician who performed the test noted an unexpected gap between the field lens and its supporting structure in the corrector and filled it in with an ordinary metal washer.
^ Dunar, p. 512.
^ Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program Volume V: Exploring the Cosmos, (2001), John M. Logsdon, Editor
^ Mirror, Primary Backup, Hubble Space Telescope. From NASM web site..
^ Chaisson, Eric (1994) The Hubble Wars; Astrophysics Meets Astropolitics in the Two-Billion-Dollar Struggle Over the Hubble Space Telescope. Harper Collins Publishers, ISBN 0-06-017114-6, p. 184.
^ SP-4219, p. 376
^ Jedrzejewski R.I., Hartig G., Jakobsen P., Crocker J.H., Ford H. C. (1994), "In-orbit performance of the COSTAR-corrected Faint Object Camera", Astrophysical Journal Letters, v. 435, p. L7–L10
^ SP-4219, p. 376.
^ Dunar, pp. 514-515
^ Servicing Mission 1. NASA.
^ Trauger J.T., Ballester G.E., Burrows C.J., Casertano S., Clarke J.T., Crisp D. (1994), The on-orbit performance of WFPC2, Astrophysical Journal Letters, v. 435, p. L3-L6
^ Servicing Mission 2. NASA.
^ ^a ^b NICMOS Temperature History. STSI.
^ Servicing Mission 3A Overview. NASA.
^ Servicing Mission 3. NASA.
^ W. L. Freedman, B. F. Madore, B. K. Gibson, L. Ferrarese, D. D. Kelson, S. Sakai, J. R. Mould, R. C. Kennicutt, Jr., H. C. Ford, J. A. Graham, J. P. Huchra, S. M. G. Hughes, G. D. Illingworth, L. M. Macri, P. B. Stetson. "Final Results from the Hubble Space Telescope Key Project to Measure the Hubble Constant". The Astrophysical Journal 553 (1): 47-72. . Preprint available here.
^ Supernova Cosmology Project. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory.
^ HUBBLE CONFIRMS EXISTENCE OF MASSIVE BLACK HOLE AT HEART OF ACTIVE GALAXY. Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA.
^ Gebhardt, K. and Bender, R. and Bower, G. and Dressler, A. and Faber, SM and Filippenko, A.V. and Green, R. and Grillmair, C. and Ho, L.C. and Kormendy, J. and others. "A Relationship between Nuclear Black Hole Mass and Galaxy Velocity Dispersion", pp. L13--L16. . Preprint here.
^ Hubble Confirms Abundance of Protoplanetary Disks around Newborn Stars. STScI.
^ Hubble Finds Extrasolar Planets Far Across Galaxy. NASA.
^ Autopsy of an Explosion. NASA.
^ APOD: March 11, 1996 - Hubble Telescope Maps Pluto. NASA.
^ Astronomers Measure Mass of Largest Dwarf Planet. NASA.
^ STSCi newsletter, v. 20, issue 2, Spring 2003
^ Benn C.R., Sánchez S.F. (2001), Scientific Impact of Large Telescopes, Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, v. 113, p.385
^ Wilson, R. W., Baldwin, J. E., Buscher, D. F., Warner, P. J. (1992), High-resolution imaging of Betelgeuse and Mira,Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. 257, no. 3, Aug 1, 1992, p. 369–376
^ Cycle 17 Announcement Page. Space Telescope Science Institute.
^ Hubble Space Telescope Call for Proposals for Cycle 14, (2004), eds. Neill Reid and Jim Younger
^ Hubble Space Telescope Call for Proposals. STScI. Chapter 3.
^ Hubble Space Telescope Call for Proposals, Chapter 3.7, Director’s Discretionary (DD) Time Proposals.
^ Hubble Space Telescope Primer for Cycle 17. STScI., Chapter 2.
^ HST Primer for Cycle 14, (2004), eds Diane Karakla, Editor and Susan Rose, Technical Editor
^ Amateur Astronomers Will Use NASA's Hubble Space Telescope. STScI.
^ O'Meara S. (1997), The Demise of the HST Amateur Program, Sky and Telescope, June 1997, p.97.
^ Primer, section 7.
^ Primer, section 7.2
^ Primer, Chapter 7.
^ The Hubble Heritage Project. STScI.
^ Primer, section 7.2.1
^ Primer, Section 7.1.1
^ National Aeronautics and Space Administration 2003 Strategic Plan. NASA.
^ The Hubble Heritage Project. STScI.
^ HubbleSite. STScI.
^ NewsCenter. STScI.
^ News Release Archive: Entire Collection. STScI.
^ Hubble Public Talks. STScI.
^ The European Homepage For The NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope. ESA.
^ Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph. STScI.
^ Sembach, K. R., et al. 2004, HST Two-Gyro Handbook, Version 1.0, (Baltimore: STScI)
^ Whitehouse, Dr. David. "NASA optimistic about Hubble fate", BBC News, 2004-04-23. Retrieved on 2007-01-10.
^ Advanced Camera for Surveys Update. STScI (2006-06-30).
^ STScI, Hubble's Advanced Camera for Surveys Resumes Exploring the Universe, 12 July 2006 [2]
^ Hubble ACS Status Report #3. Space Telescope Science Institute. Retrieved on 2007-01-10.
^ Dominiquez, Alex. "Hubble's primary camera shuts down", Associated Press/Yahoo! News, 2007-01-29. Retrieved on 2007-01-29.
^ Engineers Investigate Issue on One of Hubble's Science Instruments. NASA. Retrieved on 2007-05-08.
^ ACS Status: February 21, 2007. Space Telescope Science Institute. Retrieved on 2007-05-08.
^ Whitehouse, Dr. David. "Why Hubble is being dropped", BBC News, 2004-01-17. Retrieved on 2007-01-10.
^ Cowing, Keith. "NASA Considering Deletion of Hubble Deorbit Module", SpaceRef, 2005-07-22. Retrieved on 2007-01-10.
^ Leonard David. Health Checkup: Engineers Work to Stall Hubble's Death. space.com.
^ Servicing Mission 4 Cancelled. STScI.
^ [http://www.nsf.gov/mps/ast/aaac/reports/annual/aaac_2004_report.pdf 2004 ANNUAL REPORT ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS ADVISORY COMMITTEE]. ASTRONOMY AND ASTROPHYSICS ADVISORY COMMITTEE.. Section 3.1 - The Scientific Impact of the HST SM4 Cancellation
^ Gugliotta, Guy. "Nominee Backs a Review Of NASA's Hubble Decision", Washington Post, 2005-04-12. Retrieved on 2007-01-10.
^ Mikulski Vows To Fight For Hubble.
^ NASA Consolidated Launch Manifest. NASA. Retrieved on 2008-04-06.
^ Boyle, Alan. "NASA gives green light to Hubble rescue", MSNBC, 2006-10-31. Retrieved on 2007-01-10.

id="External_links"> Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 10th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... â€œPDFâ€ redirects here. ... A kibibyte (a contraction of kilo binary byte) is a unit of information or computer storage, commonly abbreviated KiB (never kiB). 1 kibibyte = 210 bytes = 1,024 bytes The kibibyte is closely related to the kilobyte, which can be used either as a synonym for kibibyte or to refer to... â€œPDFâ€ redirects here. ... MiB redirects here. ... is the 264th day of the year (265th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2001 (MMI) was a common year starting on Monday (link displays the 2001 Gregorian calendar). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 10th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Astrophysical Journal is one of the foremost research journals devoted to recent developments, discoveries, and theories in astronomy and astrophysics. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 113th day of the year (114th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 10th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 181st day of the year (182nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 10th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 29th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 29th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 128th day of the year (129th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 128th day of the year (129th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 17th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 10th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 203rd day of the year (204th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 10th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 102nd day of the year (103rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 10th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 96th day of the year (97th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 304th day of the year (305th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 10th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...

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This article is about the space vehicle. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (945x766, 76 KB) Hubble Space Telescope as seen from the Space Shuttle Discovery on mission STS-82. ... The 35th Space Shuttle mission, STS-31 using Space Shuttle Discovery, launched April 24, 1990, and returned April 29. ... This article is about the Space Shuttle mission STS-61, flown in 1993. ... This is a mission of the United States Space Shuttle // Crew Kenneth D. Bowersox (4), - Commander Scott J. Horowitz (2), Pilot Mark C. Lee (4), Mission Specialist Steven A. Hawley (4), Mission Specialist Gregory J. Harbaugh (4), Mission Specialist Steven L. Smith (2), Mission Specialist Joseph R. Tanner (2), Mission... This is a mission of the United States Space Shuttle. ... This is a mission of the United States Space Shuttle Crew Scott D. Altman (3), Commander Duane G. Carey (1), Pilot John M. Grunsfeld (4), Payload Commander Nancy J. Currie (4), Mission Specialist James H. Newman (4) , Mission Specialist Richard M. Linnehan (3), Mission Specialist Michael J. Massimino (1), Mission... STS-125 is a planned Space Shuttle mission to be flown by Space Shuttle Atlantis. ... Introduction The Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) is a third generation axial instrument aboard the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). ... COSTAR being inserted into Hubble during First Servicing Mission. ... One of the three Fine Guidance Sensors photographed during Second Servicing Mission in 1997 The Fine Guidance Sensor (FGS) is an interferometric instrument on board the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) that provides high-precision pointing information as input to the observatorys attitude control systems. ... The Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS) is a scientific instrument for infrared astronomy, installed on the Hubble Space Telescope (HST), operating from 1997 to 1999, and from 2002 to the present. ... The Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) is a spectrograph installed on the Hubble Space Telescope, operating from 1997 to 2004. ... A Hubble Space Telescope image of the Hubble Deep Field showing the characteristic stairstep composition of WFPC2 images The Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) is a camera installed on the Hubble Space Telescope. ... The Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS) is an instrument that is scheduled to be installed on the Hubble Space Telescope in 2008 during STS-125. ... The Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) will be installed on the Hubble Space Telescope (Hubble) during the fourth servicing mission scheduled for September 2008. ... The Faint Object Camera (FOC) was a camera installed on the Hubble Space Telescope until 2002. ... The Faint Object Spectrograph (FOS) was a spectrograph installed on the Hubble Space Telescope. ... The Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph (GHRS or HRS) was a spectrograph installed on the Hubble Space Telescope. ... The High Speed Photometer (HSP) was a scientific instrument installed on the Hubble Space Telescope. ... The Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WFPC) was a camera installed on the Hubble Space Telescope. ... Space telescopes A space observatory is any instrument in outer space which is used for observation of distant planets, galaxies, and other outer space objects. ... AGILE is an X-ray and Gamma ray astronomical satellite of the Italian Space Agency (ASI). ... The Chandra X-ray Observatory is a satellite launched on STS-93 by NASA on July 23, 1999. ... For a French painter, see Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot. ... The Galaxy Evolution Explorer is an orbiting space telescope that was launched on April 28, 2003. ... This article is about the concept of integrals in calculus. ... The Low Energy Gamma-Ray Imager (LEGRI) is a payload for the first mission of the Spanish MINISAT platform. ... The Microvariability and Oscillations of STars telescope or the MOST space observatory is Canadas first and (as of mid-2005) only space telescope. ... PAMELA logo PAMELA is a bacronym for Payload for Antimatter Matter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics. ... The Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer (RXTE) satellite observes the fast-moving, high-energy worlds of black holes, neutron stars, X-ray pulsars and bursts of X-rays that light up the sky and then disappear forever. ... The Spitzer Space Telescope (formerly the Space Infrared Telescope Facility [SIRTF]) is an infrared space observatory, the fourth and final of NASAs Great Observatories. ... Astro-E (NASA) Astro-E2 (NASA) ASTRO-E and ASTRO-EII (or Astro-E2) are Japanese X-ray astronomy satellites built primarily by JAXA. In 2000 the Astro-E launch failed (with the satellite falling into the ocean), so a replacement called Astro-EII was launched on July 10, 2005. ... The Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission consists of a robotic spacecraft called Swift, which was launched into orbit on November 20, 2004, at 17:16:00 UTC (12:16 PM, EST) by a Delta II 7320-10C expendable launch vehicle. ... Look up Trace in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Artist depiction of the WMAP satellite at the L2 point The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) is a NASA satellite whose mission is to survey the sky to measure the temperature of the radiant heat left over from the Big Bang. ... The Wide Field Infrared Explorer (WIRE) is a satellite launched in 1999 by a Pegasus rocket into a polar orbit between 409 km and 426 km above the Earths surface. ... This article is about XMM-Newton. ... The Gamma-ray Large Area Space Telescope, or GLAST, is a future space-based gamma-ray telescope, designed to explore the high-energy Universe. ... The Herschel Space Observatory is a mission of the European Space Agency. ... The Planck Satellite is a spacecraft that is designed to observe the anisotropies of the Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation over the entire sky, with both high sensitivity and high angular resolution. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... There are very few or no other articles that link to this one. ... The Kepler Mission is a space observatory being developed by NASA that will search for extrasolar planets and will only be the second space-based telescope particularly constructed for that task, the first one being COROT. For this purpose, it will observe the brightness of about 100,000 stars over... WISE or Wide-Field Infrared Survey Explorer is a proposed, NASA-funded scientific research project. ... The Nuclear Spectroscopic Telescope Array, or NuSTAR, is future space-based X-ray telescope. ... Spectrum-X-Gamma (SXG) is an international high-energy astrophysics observatory which is being built under the leadership of the Russian Space Research Institute (IKI). ... Gaia is a European Space Agency (ESA) astrometry space mission, and a successor to the ESA Hipparcos mission. ... ASTRO-G (also known as VSOP-2) is a planned radio telescope satellite under development by JAXA. It is expected to be launched in fiscal year 2011 into elliptic orbit around Earth (apogee height 25,000 km, perigee height 1,000 km). ... The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is a planned space infrared observatory, intended to be a significant improvement on the aging Hubble Space Telescope. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Artists concept of Space Interferometry Mission spacecraft The Space Interferometry Mission (SIM), also called SIM PlanetQuest, is a NASA instrument originally expected to be launched in December of 2011; however due to budget cuts it will now launch no sooner than between October 2014 and April 2015. ... The Darwin Mission is a proposed European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to directly detect Earth-like planets orbiting nearby stars, and search for evidence of life on these planets. ... The LISA is the Laser Interferometer Space Antenna experiment. ... XEUS is the X-ray Evolving Universe Spectroscopy space observatory that is being developed by the European Space Agency as a successor to the successful XMM-Newton X-ray satellite telescope. ... Terrestrial Planet Finder - Infrared interferometer concept The Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) is a plan by NASA for a telescope system that would be capable of detecting extrasolar terrestrial planets. ... WISE or Wide-Field Infrared Survey Explorer is a proposed, NASA-funded scientific research project. ... Artists conception of ASTRO-F ASTRO-F (or Akari) is an infrared astronomy satellite developed by Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, in cooperation with institutes of Europe and Korea. ... ASCA (formerly named ASTRO-D) is Japans fourth cosmic X-ray astronomy mission, and the second for which the United States is providing part of the scientific payload. ... The Array of Low Energy X-ray Imaging Sensors (ALEXIS) X-ray telescopes feature curved mirrors whose multilayer coatings reflect and focus low-energy X-rays or extreme ultraviolet light the way optical telescopes focus visible light. ... Aryabhata was Indias first satellite, named after the great Indian astronomer of the same name. ... Astron Astron was a Soviet astrophysical spacecraft launched on March 23, 1983. ... BeppoSAX was an Italian-Dutch satellite for X-ray astronomy. ... The Broad Band X-ray Telescope (BBXRT) was flown on the space shuttle Columbia (STS-35) on 1990 December 2-December 11, as part of the ASTRO-1 payload. ... Illustration of CGRO The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory(CGRO) was the second of the NASA Great Observatories to be launched to space, following the Hubble Space Telescope. ... OAO-3 in the clean room The Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO) satellites were a series of four space observatories launched by NASA between 1966 and 1972, which provided the first high-quality observations of many objects in ultraviolet light. ... COS-B Cos-B was a satellite mission to study gamma-ray emissions from stars and other objects. ... The Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE), also referred to as Explorer 66, was the first satellite built dedicated to cosmology. ... Einstein Observatory (HEAO-2) was the first fully imaging X-ray telescope put into space and the second of NASAs three High Energy Astrophysical Observatories. ... The Exosat satellite was operational from May 1983 until April 1986 and in that time made 1780 observations in the X-ray band of most classes of astronomical object including active galactic nuclei, stellar coronae, cataclysmic variables, white dwarfs, X-ray binaries, clusters of galaxies, and supernova remnants. ... The Extreme Ultraviolet Explorer (EUVE) was a space telescope for ultraviolet (UV) astronomy, launched on June 7, 1992. ... FUSE, the Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer, is a space-based telescope, run by the Johns Hopkins University. ... ASTRO-C, renamed Ginga (Japanese for galaxy), was launched from the Kagoshima Space Center on 5 February 1987. ... HALCA (MUSES-B) The HALCA (Highly Advanced Laboratory for Communications and Astronomy), also known as MUSES-B before launch, is an 8 meter diameter radio telescope satellite which was used for Very Long Baseline Interferometry. ... The High Energy Transient Explorer (abbreviated HETE) is an American astronomical satellite with international participation (mainly Japan and France). ... The first of NASAs three High Energy Astronomy Observatories, HEAO 1 was launched aboard an Atlas Centaur rocket on 12 August 1977 and operated until 9 January 1979. ... Hipparcos (for High Precision Parallax Collecting Satellite) was an astrometry mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) dedicated to the measurement of stellar parallax and the proper motions of stars. ... The Infrared Space Observatory (ISO)is a space telescope for infrared light designed and operated by the European Space Agency (ESA). ... International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) was an astronomical observatory satellite primarily designed to take ultraviolet spectra. ... The Infrared Astronomical Satellite (IRAS) was a space-based observatory that performed a survey of the entire sky at infrared wavelengths. ... Odin is a Swedish satellite working in two disciplines; astrophysics and aeronomy. ... OAO-3 in the clean room The Orbiting Astronomical Observatory (OAO) satellites were a series of four space observatories launched by NASA between 1966 and 1972, which provided the first high-quality observations of many objects in ultraviolet light. ... RELIKT-1 (sometimes RELICT-1 from Russian Ð Ð•Ð›Ð˜ÐšÐ¢-1) - a Soviet cosmic microwave background anisotropy experiment onboard the Prognoz 9 satellite (launched 1 July 1983) first gave only upper limits on the large-scale anisotropy, but reanalysis of the data in 1992 claimed a signal roughly compatible with the later experiments. ... ROSAT ROSAT (short for RÃ¶ntgensatellit) was a German X-ray satellite telescope. ... Tenma (known as Astro-B before launch) was the Japans second X-ray astronomy satellite, developed by Institute of Space and Astronautical Science. ... Uhuru was the first satellite launched specifically for the purpose of X-ray astronomy. ... Yohkoh (Sunbeam in Japanese), also known as SOLAR-A, was a Japanese Institute of Space and Astronautical Science Solar mission with United States and United Kingdom collaboration. ... The Eddington mission was a European Space Agency project that would have searched for Earth-like planets by 2008. ... Space telescopes A space observatory is any instrument in outer space which is used for observation of distant planets, galaxies, and other outer space objects. ... NASAs series of Great Observatories satellites were four large, powerful space-based telescopes. ...

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Conception, design and aims GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");