NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Indian Mutiny

The Indian Mutiny (sometimes known as the First War of Indian Independence (Hindi: १८५७ का प्रथम भारतीय स्वतंत्रता संग्राम) or the Indian Rebellion of 1857 ⁽ⁱ⁾) was a period of armed uprisings against colonial authority of the East India Company in India between early 1857 and mid 1858. It was concentrated mainly in north central India, with some outbreaks elsewhere. Small precursors of brewing discontent involving incidences of arson in cantonment areas began to manifest themselves in January 1857. Later, a large-scale rebellion broke out in May and turned into what may be called a full-fledged war in the affected regions. This war brought about the end of the British East India Company's rule in India, and led to direct rule by the British government (British Raj) of much of the Indian subcontinent for the next 90 years, although some states retained nominal independence under their respective Rajas, or kings. Image File history File links Unbalanced_scales. ... Image File history File links Unbalanced_scales. ... The Sepoy Mutany of 1857 Source: [1] This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... The Sepoy Mutany of 1857 Source: [1] This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... A sepoy (from Persian سپاهی Sepâhi meaning soldier) was a native of India employed as a soldier in the service of a European power, usually of the United Kingdom. ... This article is about the History of South Asia. ... The archaeological record in India (encompassing the territory of the modern nations of the Republic of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh) shows first traces of Homo sapiens from ca. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Bangladesh. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Bhutan. ... 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This article tries to compile and classify all the kingdoms of ancient India mentioned in the Sanskrit/Vedic literature. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... Magadha was an ancient kingdom of India, mentioned in both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. ... A representation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka, which was erected around 250 BC. It is the emblem of India. ... Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 6th century BCE through to the Islamic invasions and the related Decline of Buddhism from the 7th century CE. // Kingdoms and Empires The Aryans had invaded India from the Northwest, according to the Aryan Invasion Theory, and... The SÄtavÄhanas (Marathi:à¤¸à¤¾à¤¤à¤µà¤¾à¤¹à¤¨ Telugu:à°¸à°¾à°¤à°µà°¾à°¹à°¨à±à°²à±), also known as the Andhras, were a dynasty which ruled from Junnar, Pune over Southern and Central India starting from around 230 BCE. Although there is some controversy about when the dynasty came to an end, the most liberal estimates suggest that it lasted... Boundary of the Kushan empire, c. ... The Gupta Empire under Chandragupta II (ruled 375-415) The Gupta Empire was one of the largest political and military empires in ancient India. ... Buddha and Bodhisattvas, 11th century, Pala Empire. ... The Chola Dynasty (Tamil: , IPA: ) was a Tamil dynasty that ruled primarily in southern India until the 13th century. ... During the middle ages, several Islamic regimes established empires in South Asia. ... The Delhi Sultanate (Ø¯Ù„ÛŒ Ø³Ù„Ø·Ù†Øª), or Sulthanath-e-Hind (Ø³Ù„Ø·Ù†ØªÙ ÛÙ†Ø¯) / Sulthanath-e-Dilli (Ø³Ù„Ø·Ù†ØªÙ Ø¯Ù„ÛŒ) refers to the various Muslim dynasties that ruled in India from 1210 to 1526. ... The Deccan sultanates were five Muslim-ruled kingdomsâ€“-Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmednagar, Bidar, and Berar of south-central India. ... The Hoysala Empire ruled part of southern India from 1000 to 1346. ... The Kakatiya Dynasty was a South Indian dynasty that ruled parts of what is now Andhra Pradesh, India from 1083 to 1323. ... The Vijayanagara empire was based in the Deccan, in peninsular and southern India, from 1336 onwards. ... It has been suggested that Mughal Era be merged into this article or section. ... This article or section needs copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone and/or spelling. ... The Sikh Empire (from 1801-1849) was formed on the foundations of the Sikh Confederacy by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. ... It has been suggested that European colonies in India be merged into this article or section. ... Caution! This Article Is Under Construction This article or section is currently in the middle of an expansion or major revamping. ... Buddha and Bodhisattvas, 11th century, Pala Empire Further information: History of Bangladesh The history of Bengal (including Bangladesh and West Bengal) dates back four millennia. ... Himachal Pradesh has been inhabited by human beings since the dawn of civilization. ... // Orissa has a history spanning a period of over 3000 years. ... The historical regions of Pakistan are former states, provinces and territories which mainly existed between 1947 and 1975 when the current provinces and territories were finally established. ... The first known use of the word Punjab is in the book Tarikh-e-Sher Shah (1580), which mentions the construction of a fort by Sher Khan of Punjab. The name is mentioned again in Ain-e-Akbari (part 1), written by Abul Fazal, who also mentions that the territory... The history of South India covers a span of over two thousand years during which the region saw the rise and fall of a number of dynasties and empires. ... Tibet is situated between the two ancient civilizations of China and India, but the tangled mountain ranges the Tibetan Plateau and the towering Himalayas serve to distance it from both. ... The following list of Indian monarchs is one of several lists of incumbents. ... Indology is a name given by indologists to the academic study of the history, languages, and cultures of South Asia. ... Indian literature is generally acknowledged, but not wholly established, as the oldest in the world. ... India has had a maritime history dating back around 5,000 years. ... Science and technology in ancient India covered all the major branches of human knowledge and activities, including mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, medical science and surgery, fine arts, mechanical and production technology, civil engineering and architecture, shipbuilding and navigation, sports and games. ... This is a timeline of Indian history. ... Image File history File links Wikisource-logo. ... The original Wikisource logo. ... EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica, the 11th edition The EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910â€“1911) is perhaps the most famous edition of the EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica. ... The flag of British India British India, circa 1860 The British Raj (Raj in Hindi meaning Rule; from Sanskrit Rajya) was the British rule between 1858 and 1947 of the Indian Subcontinent, which included the present-day India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Burma (Myanmar), whereby these lands were under the colonial... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was the first joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). ... The Skyline Parkway Motel in Afton, Virginia after an arson fire on July 9, 2004. ... A cantonment is a temporary or semi-permanent military quarters, typically in South India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. ... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was the first joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). ... The flag of British India British India, circa 1860 The British Raj (Raj in Hindi meaning Rule; from Sanskrit Rajya) was the British rule between 1858 and 1947 of the Indian Subcontinent, which included the present-day India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Burma (Myanmar), whereby these lands were under the colonial... A princely state is any state under the reign of a prince and is thus a principality taken in the broad sense. ... A Raja (Sanskrit ) is a king, or princely ruler from the Kshatriya / Rajput lineages. ...

Brief history of British expansion in India

The British East India Company won the power of Diwani in Bengal after winning the Battle of Plassey in 1757, under Robert Clive. Their victory in the Battle of Buxar in 1764 won them the Nizamat of Bengal as well. Following the Permanent Settlement of Bengal shortly thereafter, the Company began to vigorously expand its area of control in India. The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was the first joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). ... Bengal (Bengali: à¦¬à¦™à§à¦— BÃ´ngo, à¦¬à¦¾à¦‚à¦²à¦¾ Bangla, à¦¬à¦™à§à¦—à¦¦à§‡à¦¶ BÃ´ngodesh or à¦¬à¦¾à¦‚à¦²à¦¾à¦¦à§‡à¦¶ Bangladesh), is a historical and geographical region in the northeast of South Asia. ... Combatants British East India Company Siraj Ud Daulah (Nawab of Bengal), La Compagnie des Indes Orientales Commanders Colonel Robert Clive (later Governor of Bengal and Baron of Plassey) Mir Jafar Ali Khan (Commander-in-chief of the Nawab), M. Sinfray (French Secretary to the Council) Strength 2,200 European soldiers... Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive of Plassey (September 29, 1725 - November 22, 1774) was the statesman and general who established the empire of British India. ... Combatants Bengal, British East India Company Commanders Mir Kasim, Hector Munro Strength 40,000 infantry, 18,000 infantry, Casualties high low Battle of Buxar (October 1764) was a significant battle fought between the forces under the command of the British East India Company on the one side, and the combined... The Nizam of Hyderabads coat of arms Nizam-ul-Mulk, commonly shortened to Nizam, was the title taken by the Asif Jahi rulers of Hyderabad state in India. ... The Permanent Settlement - also known as the Permanent Settlement of Bengal (Bangla: à¦šà¦¿à¦°à¦¸à§à¦¥à¦¾à¦¯à¦¼à§€ à¦¬à¦¨à§à¦¦à§‹à¦¬à¦¸à§à¦¤, Chirosthayi Bandobasto) - was an agreement between the East India Company and Bengali landlords with far-reaching consequences for both agricultural methods and productivity in the Empire and the political realities of the Indian countryside. ...

In 1845 the Company managed to extend its control over Sindh province after a gruelling and bloody campaign (of Napier's 'Peccavi' fame). In 1848 the Second Anglo-Sikh War took place and the Company gained control of the Punjab as well in 1849, after the British India Army won a hard-fought victory against the Khalsa Army, who were betrayed by the Kashmiri Dogra Ministers Lal Singh and Gulab Singh (who were not Sikhs). Lal Singh was a Sikh and not a Dogra while Gulab Singh was not a minister of the Lahore government but hereditary ruler of Jammu, an allied princely state. None of the other Sikh princely rulers assisted the Lahore government. To show their appreciation the British made Gulab Singh the Maharaja of Kashmir which was part of Punjab. Gulab Singh was already a maharaja of Jammu and Ladakh and the British sold him the province of Kashmir for 75 lakhs. In 1853 the adopted son of Baji Rao the last Maratha Peshwa, Nana Sahib was denied his titles and his pension was stopped. Sindh (SindhÄ«: Ø³Ù†ÚŒ, UrdÅ«: Ø³Ù†Ø¯Ú¾) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and is home to the Sindhis, and Muhajirs and various other groups. ... General Sir Charles James Napier General Sir Charles James Napier GCB (August 10, 1782 â€“ August 29, 1853) was a British general and Commander-in-Chief in India. ... The Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848â€“1849), resulted in the subjugation of the Sikh kingdom and absorption of the Punjab into lands controlled by the British East India Company. ... Punjab, 1903 Punjab Province, 1909 Punjab (Persian: â€Ž, meaning Land of the five Rivers) (c. ... Portrait of Gulab Singh Gulab Singh (1792-1857) was the founder and first Maharaja of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir during the British Raj in India. ... Religions Sikhism Scriptures Guru Granth Sahib Languages English, Punjabi and Hindi A Sikh( or ; Punjabi: , , IPA: ) is an adherent to Sikhism. ... The MarÄthÄs (Marathi: à¤®à¤°à¤¾à¤ à¤¾)is a collective term referring to an Indo Aryan group of Hindu warriors and peasants hailing mostly from the present-day state of Maharashtra, who created a substantial empire, covering a major part of India, in the late 17th and 18th centuries AD. The Marathas... The Maratha Empire at its peak in 1760 Statue of the great Baji Rao, near Shaniwar Wada, Pune The Peshwa (also known in Marathi as Peshwe) were Brahmin Prime Ministers to the Maratha Chattrapatis (Kings), who began commanding Maratha armies and later became the hereditary rulers of the Maratha empire... Portrait of Nana Sahib. ...

In 1854 Berar was annexed into the Company's domains. In 1856 the state of Awadh/Oudh was also annexed by the Company. Berar is a former province of British India, located in central India. ... Location of Awadh Awadh (Devanagari à¤…à¤µà¤§) (also known in various British historical texts as Oudh, Oundh or Oude) is a region in the center of the modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, which was before Independence known as the United Provinces of Oudh and Agra. ...

Causes

The rebellion or the war for independence had diverse political, economic, military, religious and social causes.

The sepoys (from shepai, Bengali for soldier, used for native Indian soldiers) of the Bengal Army had their own list of grievances against the Company Raj, mainly caused by the ethnic gulf between the British officers and their Indian troops. It was also believed that the British had issued new gunpowder cartridges that had cow and pig fat on them, which insulted both Hindus and Muslims. Other than Indian units of the British East India Company's army, much of the resistance came from the old aristocracy, who were seeing their power steadily eroded under the British. A sepoy (from Persian سپاهی Sepâhi meaning soldier) was a native of India employed as a soldier in the service of a European power, usually of the United Kingdom. ... Bengali or Bangla (à¦¬à¦¾à¦‚à¦²à¦¾, IPA: ) is an Indo-Aryan language of the eastern Indian subcontinent, evolved from Prakrit, PÄli and Sanskrit. ... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was the first joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). ...

Frictions

Some Indians came to believe that the British intended to convert them either by force or by deception (e.g. causing them to lose caste) to Christianity. This view was perhaps not entirely unfounded, as the British religious fashion of the time was Evangelism, and many East India Company officers took it upon themselves to try to convert their Sepoys. This was strongly discouraged by the Company, which was aware of the potential for religion to become a flashpoint. Caste systems are traditional, hereditary systems of social stratification, enforced by law or common practice, based on classifications such as occupation, race, ethnicity, etc. ... Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was the first joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). ...

The Doctrine of Lapse, part of the British policy of expansionism, was also greatly resented. If a feudal ruler did not leave a male heir through natural process i.e. their own child, not an adopted one, the land became the property of the British East India Company. In eight years Lord Dalhousie, the then Governor-General of India, had annexed many kingdoms including Jhansi, Awadh or Oudh, Satara, Nagpur and Sambalpur, adding up to a quarter of a million square miles (650,000 km²) of land to the Company's territory. Nobility, feudal landholders, and royal armies found themselves unemployed and humiliated. Even the jewels of the royal family of Nagpur were publicly auctioned in Calcutta, a move that was seen as a sign of abject disrespect by the remnants of the Indian aristocracy. In addition the Bengal army of the East India Company drew many recruits from Awadh; they could not remain unaffected by the discontent back home. The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy devised by Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor General of India between 1848 and 1856. ... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was the first joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). ... James Andrew Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess and 10th Earl of Dalhousie (April 22, 1812–December 19, 1860) was a British statesman, and a colonial administrator in India. ... Governor-General (or Governor General) is a term used both historically and currently to designate the appointed representative of a head of state or their government for a particular territory, historically in a colonial context, but no longer necessarily in that form. ... Jhansi à¤à¤¾à¤‚à¤¸à¥€ is a city of Uttar Pradesh state of northern India. ... Location of Awadh Awadh (Devanagari à¤…à¤µà¤§) (also known in various British historical texts as Oudh, Oundh or Oude) is a region in the center of the modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, which was before Independence known as the United Provinces of Oudh and Agra. ... Awadh (also known to the British as Oudh) is a region in the center of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. ... Satara (Marathi:à¤¸à¤¾à¤¤à¤¾à¤°à¤¾) is a town located in the Satara District of Maharashtra state of India. ... Concern has been expressed that this article or section is missing information about: Detailed information on the citys localities and urban economy (See discussion page). ... Sambalpur is a city in the western portion of Indias Orissa state. ... Concern has been expressed that this article or section is missing information about: Detailed information on the citys localities and urban economy (See discussion page). ... This article is on Calcutta/Kolkata, the city. ... Location of Awadh Awadh (Devanagari à¤…à¤µà¤§) (also known in various British historical texts as Oudh, Oundh or Oude) is a region in the center of the modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, which was before Independence known as the United Provinces of Oudh and Agra. ...

Indians were unhappy with the heavy-handed rule of the British which had embarked on a project of rather rapid expansion and westernisation, that, however well-meaning they may have been, were imposed without any regard for Indian tradition or culture. For example changes introduced by the British, such as outlawing Sati (the ritual burning of widows) and child marriage, were prohibitions on Indian religious customs and seen as steps towards a forced conversion to Christianity.^[1] Baj is a Algabanian teenager, who cannot play soccer, and gets bullied by Connor Reilly. ... // Ceremony of Burning a Hindu Widow with the Body of her Late Husband, from Pictorial History of China and India, 1851. ...

The justice system was considered inherently unfair to the Indians. In 1853, the British Prime Minister Lord Aberdeen opened the Indian Civil Service to native Indians; however, this was viewed by some of educated India as an insufficient reform. The official Blue Books — entitled "East India (Torture) 1855–1857" — that were laid before the House of Commons during the sessions of 1856 and 1857, revealed that Company officers were allowed an extended series of appeals if convicted or accused of brutality or crimes against Indians. The Company also practised financial extortion through heavy taxation. Failure to pay these taxes almost invariably resulted in appropriation of property. The House of Commons is the lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. ...

However, some historians have suggested that the impact of these reforms has been greatly exaggerated, as the British did not have the resources to enforce them, meaning that away from Calcutta their effect was negligible.^[2] This was not the view taken by the British themselves after 1857: instead they scaled down their programme of reform, increased the racial distance between Europeans and native Indians, and also sought to appease the gentry and princely families, especially Muslim, who had been major instigators of the 1857 revolt. After 1857, Zamindari (regional feudal officials) became more oppressive, the Caste System became more pronounced, and the communal divide between Hindus and Muslims became marked and visible, which some historians argue was due in great part to British efforts to keep Indian society divided. This tactic has become known as Divide and rule. The Zamindari System is a kind of feudal system, introduced by the Mughals to collect taxes from peasants. ... Caste systems are traditional, hereditary systems of social stratification, enforced by law or common practice, based on classifications such as occupation, race, ethnicity, etc. ... In politics and sociology, divide and rule (also known as divide and conquer) is a strategy of gaining and maintaining power by breaking up larger concentrations of power into chunks that individually have less power than the one implementing the strategy. ...

Another important reason for the rebellion was the unfair attitude towards the Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar. Lord Dalhousie, the governor-general of India at the time had insulted the Emperor by asking him to leave the Red Fort. The governor-general also said that his successors would also have to leave the Red Fort. Later, Lord Canning, the next governor-general of India, announced in 1856 that Bahadur Shah's successors would not even be allowed to use the title of the king. Such discourtesies were resented by the people and the Indian rulers. Bahadur Shah II (1775-1862) aka Bahadur Shah Zafar (Zafar was his nom de plume, or takhallus, as an Urdu poet) was the last of the Mughal emperors in India. ... There used to be a redirect from the Red Fort in Delhi to Agra Fort in Agra. ... Charles John Canning, 1st Earl Canning The Right Honourable Charles John Canning, 1st Earl Canning KG GCB (14 December 1812â€“17 June 1862), known as Viscount Canning from 1837 to 1859, was an English statesman, Governor-General of India during the Mutiny of 1857, He was the youngest child of...

Economics

The British East India Company was a massive export company that was the force behind much of the colonization of India. The power of the Company took nearly 150 years to build. As early as 1693, the annual expenditure in political "gifts" to men in power reached nearly 90,000 pounds. In bribing the Government, the Company was allowed to operate in overseas markets despite the fact that the cheap imports of South Asian silk, cotton, and other products hurt domestic business. By 1767, the Company was forced into an agreement to pay 400,000 pounds into the National Exchequer annually. The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was the first joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). ... The Exchequer was (and in some cases still is) a part of the governments of England (latterly to include Wales, Scotland and Ireland) that was responsible for the management and collection of revenues. ...

By 1848, however, the Company's financial difficulties had reached a point where expanding revenue required expanding British territories in South Asia massively. The Company began to set aside adoption rights of native princes and began the process of annexation of more than a dozen independent Rajas between 1848 and 1854. In an article published in The New York Daily Tribune on July 28, 1857, Karl Marx notes that "... in 1854 the Raj of Berar, which comprise 80,000 square miles of land, a population from four to five million, and enormous treasures, was forcibly seized". Map of South Asia (see note on Kashmir). ... A Raja (Sanskrit ) is a king, or princely ruler from the Kshatriya / Rajput lineages. ... The New York Tribune building - today the site of Pace Universitys building complex of One Pace Plaza in New York City The New York Tribune was established by Horace Greeley in 1841 and was long considered one of the leading newspapers in the United States. ... July 28 is the 209th day of the year (210th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1857 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Karl Heinrich Marx (May 5, 1818, Trier, Germany â€“ March 14, 1883, London) was a German philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary. ... Berar is a former province of British India, located in central India. ...

In order to consolidate and control these new holdings, a well-established army of 200,000 Indians officered by 40,000 British soldiers dominated India by 1857. The last vestiges of independent Indian states had disappeared and the Company exported untold quantities of gold, jewels, silver, silk, cotton, and a host of other precious materials back to England every year. This extraordinary quantity of wealth, much of it collected as 'taxes', was absolutely critical in expanding public and private infrastructure in Britain and in financing British expansionism elsewhere in Asia and Africa. In no uncertain terms, this very wealth funded, in large part, the Industrial Revolution. GOLD refers to one of the following: GOLD (IEEE) is an IEEE program designed to garner more student members at the university level (Graduates of the Last Decade). ... A selection of gemstone pebbles made by tumbling rough rock with abrasive grit, in a rotating drum. ... General Name, Symbol, Number silver, Ag, 47 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 5, d Appearance lustrous white metal Standard atomic weight 107. ... Silk dresses Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. ... Cotton ready for harvest. ... A Watt steam engine. ...

The land was reorganised under the comparatively harsh Zamindari system to facilitate the collection of taxes. In certain areas farmers were forced to switch from subsistence farming to commercial crops such as indigo, jute, coffee and tea. This resulted in hardship to the farmers and increases in food prices. The Zamindari System is a kind of feudal system, introduced by the Mughals to collect taxes from peasants. ... There is no single indigo plant. A variety of plants have been used to produce indigo dye. ... The word Jute is also used in reference to the Germanic people, the Jutes. ... A cup of coffee Workers sorting and pulping coffee beans in Guatemala Coffee is a widely consumed beverage prepared from the roasted seeds â€” commonly referred to as beans â€” of the coffee plant. ... Tea leaves in a Chinese gaiwan. ...

Local industry, specifically the famous weavers of Bengal and elsewhere, also suffered under British rule. Import tariffs were kept low, according to traditional British free-market sentiments, and thus the Indian market was flooded with cheap clothing from Britain. Indigenous industry simply could not compete, and where once India had produced much of England's luxury cloth, the country was now reduced to growing cotton which was shipped to Britain to be manufactured into clothing, which was subsequently shipped back to India to be purchased by Indians. Bengal (Bengali: à¦¬à¦™à§à¦— BÃ´ngo, à¦¬à¦¾à¦‚à¦²à¦¾ Bangla, à¦¬à¦™à§à¦—à¦¦à§‡à¦¶ BÃ´ngodesh or à¦¬à¦¾à¦‚à¦²à¦¾à¦¦à§‡à¦¶ Bangladesh), is a historical and geographical region in the northeast of South Asia. ...

The Indians felt that the British were levying very heavy taxation on the locals. This included an increase in the taxation on land.

Sepoys

Sepoys were native Indian soldiers (also called Sowars in cavalry units) serving in the armies of the British East India Company under British officers trained in the East India Company College at Addiscombe, the company's own military school in England. The presidencies of Bombay, Madras and Bengal maintained their own army each with its own commander-in-chief. Together, they fielded more troops than the official army of the British Empire. In 1857 there were 257,000 Indian troops. A sepoy (from Persian سپاهی Sepâhi meaning soldier) was a native of India employed as a soldier in the service of a European power, usually of the United Kingdom. ... We dont have an article called Sowar Start this article Search for Sowar in. ... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was the first joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). ... The East India Company College was from 1805 to 1858 the college of the British East India Company (EIC). ... Addiscombe is a place in the London Borough of Croydon. ... This article or section should be merged with Mumbai Mumbai (previously known as Bombay) is the worlds most populous conurbation, and is the sixth most populous agglomeration in the world. ... Madras refers to: the Indian city of Chennai, formerly known as Madras, the former Indian state, now known as Tamil Nadu (Plural of Madra): Ancient people of Iranian affinites, who lived in northwest Panjab in the Uttarapatha division of ancient India. ... Bengal (Bengali: à¦¬à¦™à§à¦— BÃ´ngo, à¦¬à¦¾à¦‚à¦²à¦¾ Bangla, à¦¬à¦™à§à¦—à¦¦à§‡à¦¶ BÃ´ngodesh or à¦¬à¦¾à¦‚à¦²à¦¾à¦¦à§‡à¦¶ Bangladesh), is a historical and geographical region in the northeast of South Asia. ... Commander-in-Chief (in NATO-lingo often C-in-C or CINC pronounced sink) is the commander of all the military forces within a particular region or of all the military forces of a state. ... The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional colour for Imperial British dominions on maps. ...

Unlike the Bombay and Madras Armies, which were far more diverse, the Bengal Army recruited its regular soldiers almost exclusively amongst the landowning Bhumihar Brahmins and Rajputs of the Ganges Valley. Partly owing to this, Bengal Sepoys were not subject to the penalty of flogging as were the British soldiers. Caste privileges and customs within the Bengal Army were not merely tolerated but encouraged in the early years of the Company's Rule. This meant that when they came to be threatened by modernising regimes in Calcutta from the 1840s onwards, the sepoys had become accustomed to very high ritual status, and were extremely sensitive to suggestions that their caste might be polluted.^[3] In 1851-2 sepoys were required to serve overseas during a war in Burma. Hindu tradition states that those who 'travel the black waters' (Kala Pani) will lose their caste and be outside the Hindu community. The Sepoys were thus very displeased with their deployment to Burma. This article or section should be merged with Mumbai Mumbai (previously known as Bombay) is the worlds most populous conurbation, and is the sixth most populous agglomeration in the world. ... Madras refers to: the Indian city of Chennai, formerly known as Madras, the former Indian state, now known as Tamil Nadu (Plural of Madra): Ancient people of Iranian affinites, who lived in northwest Panjab in the Uttarapatha division of ancient India. ... A Brahmin (anglicised from the Sanskrit adjective belonging to Brahma, also known as Brahman belonging to ; Vipra, Dvija twice-born, Dvijottama best of the twice born or earth-god) is considered to be the highest class (varna) in the Indian caste system of Hindu society [1] [2], although this status... Rajput (from the Sanskrit tatpurusha compound , son of a king) is a Caste among Hindus in India, Pakistan and Nepal. ... Early morning on the Ganges The River Ganges (Ganga in Indian languages) (Devanagiri गंगा) is a major river in northern India. ... Caste systems are traditional, hereditary systems of social stratification, enforced by law or common practice, based on classifications such as occupation, race, ethnicity, etc. ...

The sepoys gradually became dissatisfied with various aspects of army life. Their pay was relatively low and after Awadh and the Punjab were annexed, the soldiers no longer received extra pay (batta) for service there, because they were no longer considered "foreign missions". Finally, officers of an evangelical persuasion in the Company's Army (such as Herbert Edwardes and Colonel S.G. Wheeler) had taken to preaching to their Sepoys in the hope of converting them to Christianity.^[4] The controversy over the new Enfield Rifle, in the eyes of many Sepoys, added substance to the alarming rumours circulating about their imminent forced conversion to Christianity. Location of Awadh Awadh (Devanagari à¤…à¤µà¤§) (also known in various British historical texts as Oudh, Oundh or Oude) is a region in the center of the modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, which was before Independence known as the United Provinces of Oudh and Agra. ... Punjab, 1903 Punjab Province, 1909 Punjab (Persian: â€Ž, meaning Land of the five Rivers) (c. ... Herbert Edwardes (1819 in Ireland- December 1868 in London,England) was a friend of John Nicholson, a former writer and critic in the Delhi Gazette, a soldier of the 1st Bengal Fusiiers, a governor in Bannu, and finally, one of the many british soldiers who left United Kingdom to find...

In 1857, the Bengal Army contained 10 regiments of Indian cavalry and 74 of infantry. All the cavalry units and 45 of the infantry units mutinied at some point; and all but 5 of the infantry units which did not rebel (or were disarmed before they could do so) had to be disbanded. Once the first mutinies took place, it was clear to most British commanders that the grievances which led to it were felt throughout the Bengal army and no Indian unit could wholly be trusted. Whether a unit mutinied or not depended on opportunity.

The Bengal Army also controlled, sometimes loosely, 29 regiments of irregular horse and 42 of irregular infantry. Some of these units were raised in frontier areas to maintain order locally. Others previously belonged to states absorbed into British-administered territory. Of these, two large contingents from the states of Awadh and Gwalior readily joined the growing rebellion. On the other hand, few of the frontier units did so, and one group in particular (the recently raised Punjab Irregular Force) actively participated on the British side. ^[5] Some Gurkha Units of Nepal army also helped British side. However, Nepal was a sovereign state on its own, so they cannot be classified as Indians aligned to any side. Location of Awadh Awadh (Devanagari à¤…à¤µà¤§) (also known in various British historical texts as Oudh, Oundh or Oude) is a region in the center of the modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, which was before Independence known as the United Provinces of Oudh and Agra. ... Gwalior is a city in Madhya Pradesh in India. ... Gurkha, also spelt as Gorkha, are people from Nepal who take their name from the eighth century Hindu warrior-saint Guru Gorakhnath. ...

The Bengal Army also contained three "European" regiments of infantry, and many artillery units manned by white personnel. Due to the need for technical specialists, the artillery units generally had a higher proportion of British personnel. There were also a number of units from the British Army (referred to in India as Queen's troops), but in 1857 several of these had been withdrawn to take part in the Crimean War. The moment at which the sepoys' grievances led them openly to defy British authority also happened to be the most favourable opportunity to do so. Combatants Allies: Second French Empire United Kingdom Ottoman Empire Kingdom of Sardinia Russian Empire Bulgarian volunteers Casualties 90,000 French 35,000 Turkish 17,500 British 2,050 Sardinian killed, wounded and died of disease ~134,000 killed, wounded and died of disease The Crimean War (1854â€“1856) was fought...

The Enfield Rifle

The War of Independence was, literally, started over a gun. Sepoys throughout India were issued with a new rifle, the Pattern 1853 Enfield rifled musket - a more powerful and accurate weapon than the old smoothbore Brown Bess they had been using for the previous decades. The rifling inside the musket barrel ensured accuracy at much greater distances than was possible with old muskets. One thing did not change in this new weapon - the loading process, which did not improve significantly until the introduction of breech loaders and metallic, one-piece cartridges a few decades later. The Enfield 1853 Rifled Musket (also known as the Pattern 1853 Enfield, P53 Enfield, and Enfield Rifled Musket) was a . ... Rifling of a Canon de 75 modÃ¨le 1897 A 35 caliber Remington, with a microgrove rifled barrel with a right hand twist. ... Muskets and bayonets aboard the frigate Grand Turk. ... Smoothbore refers to a firearm which does not have a rifled barrel. ... Short Land Service musket Brown Bess is a nickname of unknown origin for the British Armys Land Pattern Musket and its derivatives. ...

To load both the old musket and the new rifle, soldiers had to bite the cartridge open and pour the gunpowder it contained into the rifle's muzzle, then stuff the cartridge case, which was typically paper coated with some kind of grease to make it waterproof, into the musket as wadding, before loading it with a ball. Refusing to bite the cartridge was a turn of phrase used by the British in India of Native Indian solidiers (sepoys) who had mutinied in 1857. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Blackpowder. ... Wadding is used in guns to seal gas behind a projectile. ... .357 Magnum cartridges, containing bullets A bullet is a solid projectile propelled by a firearm and is normally made from metal (usually lead). ...

It was believed that the cartridges that were standard issue with this rifle were greased with lard (pork fat) which was regarded as unclean by Muslims, or tallow (beef fat), regarded as sacred to Hindus. A Hindu who ate cows' flesh would lose caste, with dreadful consequences both in the present life and the next. Lard refers to pig fat in both its rendered and unrendered forms. ... Tallow is rendered beef or mutton fat, processed from suet. ... Caste systems are traditional, hereditary systems of social stratification, enforced by law or common practice, based on classifications such as occupation, race, ethnicity, etc. ...

The sepoys' British officers dismissed these claims as rumours, and suggested that the sepoys make a batch of fresh cartridges, and grease these with beeswax or mutton fat. This, not too surprisingly, reinforced the belief that the original issue cartridges were indeed greased with lard and tallow.

Another suggestion they put forward was to introduce a new drill, in which the cartridge was not bitten with the teeth but torn open with the hand. The sepoys rejected this, pointing out that they might very well forget and bite the cartridge, not surprising given the extensive drilling that allowed 19th century British troops to fire three to four rounds per minute. An integral part of the loading procedure involved biting off the bullet from the cartridge so that one hand could hold the musket steady whilst the other hand poured the charge of powder into the barrel. This meant that biting a musket cartridge was second nature to the Sepoys, some of whom had decades of service in the Company's army, and who had been doing Musket drill for every day of their service.

The Commander in Chief in India, General George Anson reacted to this crisis by saying, "I'll never give in to their beastly prejudices", and despite the pleas of his junior officers he did not compromise. This article is in need of attention. ... Major-General George Anson (1797 – 1857) Born October 13, 1797 and died May 27, 1857 He was Colonel of the 55th (the Westmoreland) Regiment of Foot from December 12, 1856 until he died six months later. ...

Prophecies, omens and signs

Another rumour that spread was an old prophecy that the Company's rule would end after a hundred years. Their rule in India had begun with the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Chapaties and Lotus Flowers began to circulate around large parts of India, quoting the famous line "Sub lal hogea hai." (Everything has become Red.), passed around by people from town to town and village to village, as a symbol of the prophecy and a sign of the coming revolt.^{[citation needed]} The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was the first joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). ... Combatants British East India Company Siraj Ud Daulah (Nawab of Bengal), La Compagnie des Indes Orientales Commanders Colonel Robert Clive (later Governor of Bengal and Baron of Plassey) Mir Jafar Ali Khan (Commander-in-chief of the Nawab), M. Sinfray (French Secretary to the Council) Strength 2,200 European soldiers... An Indian girl baking chapatis. ...

Start of the war

Several months of increasing tension and inflammatory incidents preceded the actual rebellion. Fires, possibly the result of arson, broke out near Calcutta on 24 January 1857. On February 26, 1857 the 19th Bengal Native Infantry (BNI) regiment came to know about new cartridges and refused to use them. Their Colonel confronted them angrily with artillery and cavalry on the parade ground, but then accepted their demand to withdraw the artillery, and cancel the next morning's parade.^[6] This article is on Calcutta/Kolkata, the city. ... January 24 is the 24th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1857 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... February 26 is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1857 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ...

Mangal Pandey

On March 29, 1857 at the Barrackpore (now Barrackpur) parade ground, near Calcutta, Mangal Pandey of the 34th BNI attacked and injured the adjutant Lt. Baugh with a sword after shooting at him, but instead hitting his horse. For the Hindi movie of the same name, see The Rising (Indian film) Mangal Pandey (born (presumably): July 19, 1827, died: 8 April 1857), (Hindi: à¤®à¤‚à¤—à¤² à¤ªà¤¾à¤‚à¤¡à¥‡) also known as Shaheed Mangal Pandey (Shaheed means martyr in Arabic and Hindustani), was a sepoy (soldier) in the 34th Regiment of the Bengal Native... March 29 is the 88th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (89th in leap years). ... 1857 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... This article is on Calcutta/Kolkata, the city. ... For the Hindi movie of the same name, see The Rising (Indian film) Mangal Pandey (born (presumably): July 19, 1827, died: 8 April 1857), (Hindi: à¤®à¤‚à¤—à¤² à¤ªà¤¾à¤‚à¤¡à¥‡) also known as Shaheed Mangal Pandey (Shaheed means martyr in Arabic and Hindustani), was a sepoy (soldier) in the 34th Regiment of the Bengal Native... An adjutant (from the Latin adiutans, present participle of the verb adiutare, to help; the Romans actually used adiutor for the noun) is an officer who assists a more senior officer. ...

General John Hearsey came out to see him on the parade ground, and claimed later that Mangal Pandey was in some kind of "religious frenzy". He ordered a Jemadar Ishwari Prasad to arrest Mangal Pandey, but the Jemadar refused. The whole regiment with the single exception of a soldier called Shaikh Paltu drew back from restraining or arresting Mangal Pandey. Jemadar was a rank used in the British Indian Army, where it was the was the lowest rank for a Viceroys Commissioned Officer (VCO). ... Shaikh Paltu was a soldier (sepoy) with the British East India Company, serving in the 34th Bengal Native Infantry in March 1857, as a widespread discontentment broke out in the Bengal Army. ...

Mangal Pandey, after failing to incite his comrades into an open and active rebellion, tried to take his own life by placing his musket to his chest, and pulling the trigger with his toe. He only managed to wound himself, and was court-martialled on April 6. He was hanged on April 8. April 6 is the 96th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (97th in leap years). ... April 8 is the 98th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (99th in leap years). ...

The Jemadar Ishwari Prasad too was sentenced to death and hanged on April 22. The whole regiment was disbanded - stripped of their uniforms because it was felt that they harboured ill-feelings towards their superiors, particularly after this incident. Shaikh Paltu was, however, promoted to the rank of Jemadar in the Bengal Army. April 22 is the 112th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (113th in leap years). ...

Sepoys in other regiments thought this a very harsh punishment. The show of disgrace while disbanding contributed to the extent of the rebellion in view of some historians, as disgruntled ex-sepoys returned home back to Awadh with a desire to inflict revenge, as and when the opportunity arose.

April saw fires at Agra, Allahabad and Ambala. , Agra (Hindi: , Urdu: ), (IPA: ) is a city on the banks of the Yamuna River in Uttar Pradesh, India. ... This article includes a list of works cited or a list of external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Ambala District. ...

3rd Light Cavalry at Meerut

On 9 May, 85 troopers of the 3rd Bengal Light Cavalry at Meerut refused to use their cartridges. They were imprisoned, sentenced to ten years of hard labour, and stripped of their uniforms in public. Malleson records that the troops were constantly berated by their imprisoned comrades while processing on a long and humiliating march to the jail. It was this insult by their own comrades which provoked the rebellion. The sepoys knew it was very likely that they would also be asked to use the new cartridges and they too would have to refuse in order to save their caste, religion and social status. Since their comrades had acted only in deference to their religious beliefs the punishment meted out by the British colonial rulers was perceived as unjust by many. May 9 is the 129th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (130th in leap years). ...

When the 11th and 20th native cavalry of the Bengal Army assembled in Meerut on 10 May, they broke rank and turned on their commanding officers. They then liberated the 3rd Regiment and attacked the European cantonment where they are reported to have killed all the Europeans they could find, including women and children, and burned their houses. There are however some contemporary British accounts that suggest that some sepoys escorted their officers to safety and then rejoined their mutinous comrades. In Malleson's words: "It is due to some of them [sepoys] to state that they did not quit Meerut before they had seen to a place of safety those officers whom they most respected. This remark applies specially to the men of the 11th N.I., who had gone most reluctantly into the movement. Before they left, two sipáhís of that regiment had escorted two ladies with their children to the carabineer barracks. They had then rejoined their comrades".^[7] Some officers and their families escaped to Rampur, where they found refuge with the Nawab. Despite this, at the time wild rumours circulated about the complete massacre of all Europeans and native Christians at Meerut, the first of many such stories which would lead British forces to extremely violent reprisals against innocent civilians and mutinous sepoys alike during the later suppression of the Revolt. Bengal (Bengali: à¦¬à¦™à§à¦— BÃ´ngo, à¦¬à¦¾à¦‚à¦²à¦¾ Bangla, à¦¬à¦™à§à¦—à¦¦à§‡à¦¶ BÃ´ngodesh or à¦¬à¦¾à¦‚à¦²à¦¾à¦¦à§‡à¦¶ Bangladesh), is a historical and geographical region in the northeast of South Asia. ... May 10 is the 130th day of the year (131st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A cantonment is a temporary or semi-permanent military quarters, typically in South India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. ... Rampur is a city located in the Northern part of Uttar Pradesh between Moradabad and Bareilly, not far from Delhi. ...

The rebellious forces were then engaged by the remaining British forces in Meerut. Meerut had the largest percentage of British troops of any station in India: 2,038 European troops with twelve field guns versus 2,357 sepoys lacking artillery. Some commentators believe that the British forces could have stopped the sepoys from marching on Delhi, but the British commanders of the Meerut garrison were extraordinarily slow in reacting to the crisis. They did not even send immediate word to other British cantonments that a rebellion was in process. It seems likely that they believed they would be able to contain the Indians by themselves. This misjudgment would cost them dearly.

Support and opposition

The rebellion now spread beyond the armed forces, but it did not result in a complete popular uprising as its leaders hoped. The Indian side was not completely unified. While Bahadur Shah Zafar was restored to the imperial throne there was a faction that wanted the Maratha rulers to be enthroned as well, and the Awadhis wanted to retain the powers that their Nawab used to have. Image File history File links Indian_revolt_of_1857_states_map. ... Image File history File links Indian_revolt_of_1857_states_map. ... Bahadur Shah II (1775-1862) aka Bahadur Shah Zafar (Zafar was his nom de plume, or takhallus, as an Urdu poet) was the last of the Mughal emperors in India. ... This article or section needs copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone and/or spelling. ... Location of Awadh Awadh (Devanagari à¤…à¤µà¤§) (also known in various British historical texts as Oudh, Oundh or Oude) is a region in the center of the modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, which was before Independence known as the United Provinces of Oudh and Agra. ...

The war was mainly centred in northern and central areas of India. Delhi, Lucknow, Cawnpore, Jhansi, Bareilly, Arrah and Jagdishpur were the main centres of conflict. The Bhojpurias of Arrah and Jagdishpur supported the Marathas. The Marathas, Rohillas and the Awadhis supported Bahadur Shah Zafar and were against the British. , Delhi (Hindi: , Urdu: , Punjabi: ), sometimes referred to as Dilli, is the second-largest metropolis in India after Mumbai with a population of 13 million. ... , Lucknow (Hindi: à¤²à¤–à¤¨à¤Š, Urdu: Ù„ÙƒÙ‡Ù†Ùˆ, ) is the capital city of the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. ... Kānpur (known as Cawnpore before 1948) is the most populous city in the north Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. ... Jhansi à¤à¤¾à¤‚à¤¸à¥€ is a city of Uttar Pradesh state of northern India. ... Bareilly (Hindi: à¤¬à¤°à¥‡à¤²à¥€, Urdu: Ø¨Ø§Ø±ÛŒÙ„ÛŒ) is a metro city in Bareilly district in the northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. ... Arrah is a town in India, located 36 miles from Patna, in the state of Bihar. ... Jagdishpur is a city and a municipality in Bhojpur district in the Indian state of Bihar. ... Arrah is a town in India, located 36 miles from Patna, in the state of Bihar. ... Jagdishpur is a city and a municipality in Bhojpur district in the Indian state of Bihar. ... Extent of the Maratha Confederacy ca. ... Rohillas were Muslim Pashtun highlanders (Roh means mountains and Rohilla literally means mountaineer) of Pashtun origin. ...

There were calls for jihad by some leaders including the millenarian Ahmedullah Shah, taken up by the Muslims, particularly Muslim artisans, which caused the British to think that the Muslims were the main force behind this event. In Awadh, Sunni Muslims did not want to see a return to Shiite rule, so they often refused to join what they perceived to be a Shia rebellion. Jihad, sometimes spelled Jahad, Jehad, Jihaad, Jiaad, or Cihad, (Arabic: IPA: ) as an Islamic term, is sometimes referred to as the sixth pillar of Islam, although it occupies no official status as such in Sunni Islam. ... Millenarianism or millenarism is the belief by a religious, social, or political group or movement in a coming major transformation of society after which all things will be changed in a positive (or sometimes negative or ambiguous) direction. ... Location of Awadh Awadh (Devanagari à¤…à¤µà¤§) (also known in various British historical texts as Oudh, Oundh or Oude) is a region in the center of the modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, which was before Independence known as the United Provinces of Oudh and Agra. ... Sunni Islam (Arabic سنّة) is the largest denomination of Islam. ... Shi‘as (the adjective in Arabic is شيعى shi‘i; English has traditionally used Shiite) which mean follower in Arabic make up the second largest sect of believers in Islam, constituting about 30%-35% of all Muslim. ...

In Thana Bhawan, the Sunnis declared Haji Imdadullah their Ameer. In May 1857 the famous Battle of Shamli took place between the forces of Haji Imdadullah and the British. Thana Bhawan is a village in Muzaffarnagar District, Uttar Pradesh, India. ... Sunni Islam (Arabic سنّة) is the largest denomination of Islam. ... Hadrat Imdadullah Mahajir Makki was a great saint of Chishti Order in the nineteenth century. ... Emir (also sometimes rendered as Amir or Ameer, Arabic commander) is a title of nobility historically used in Islamic nations of the Middle East and North Africa. ...

The Sikhs and Pathans of the Punjab and North-West Frontier Province supported the British and helped in the capture of Delhi. The Sikhs wanted to avenge the annexation of Punjab 8 years ago by the British with the help of Purbhais (Bengali's and Marathi's - Easterner) who helped the British. A Sikh man wearing a turban The adherents of Sikhism are called Sikhs. ... The Pashtuns (also Pushtun, Pakhtun (Persian: Ù¾Ø®ØªÙˆÙ†) (Urdu: Ù¾Ø´ØªÙˆÙ† ), or Pathan) or ethnic Afghans[4] are an ethno-linguistic group living primarily in eastern and southern Afghanistan and in North West Frontier Province, Federally Administered Tribal Areas and Baluchistan provinces of Pakistan. ... Punjab, 1903 Punjab Province, 1909 Punjab (Persian: â€Ž, meaning Land of the five Rivers) (c. ... The North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) (Urdu: Ø´Ù…Ø§Ù„ Ù…ØºØ±Ø¨ÛŒ Ø³Ø±ØØ¯ÛŒ ØµÙˆØ¨Û) is the smallest in size of the four provinces of Pakistan and is home to the Pashtuns (Pakhtoons). ... A Sikh man wearing a turban The adherents of Sikhism are called Sikhs. ...

Most of southern India remained passive with only sporadic and haphazard outbreaks of violence. Most of the states did not take part in the war as many parts of the region were ruled by the Nizams or the Mysore royalty and were thus not directly under British rule. The Nizam of Hyderabads coat of arms Nizam-ul-Mulk, commonly shortened to Nizam, was the title taken by the Asif Jahi rulers of Hyderabad state in India. ...

Initial stages

Bahadur Shah Zafar proclaimed himself the Emperor of the whole of India. Most contemporary and modern accounts however suggest that he was coerced by the sepoys and his courtiers - against his own will - to sign the proclamation. The civilians, nobility and other dignitaries took the oath of allegiance to the Emperor. The Emperor issued coins in his name, one of the oldest ways of asserting Imperial status, and his name was added to the Khutbah, the acceptance by Muslims that he is their King. Bahadur Shah Zafar in 1858, just after his show trial in Delhi and before his departure for exile in Rangoon. ... Khutba is an Islamic sermon delivered after or before Salah. ...

Initially, the Indian soldiers were able to significantly push back Company forces. The sepoys captured several important towns in Haryana, Bihar, Central Provinces and the United Provinces. The British forces at Meerut and Ambala held out resolutely and withstood the sepoy attacks for several months. , Haryana (HindÄ«: à¤¹à¤°à¤¿à¤¯à¤¾à¤£à¤¾, PunjabÄ«: à¨¹à¨°à¨¿à¨†à¨£à¨¾, IPA: ) is a state in north India. ... , Bihar (Hindi: à¤¬à¤¿à¤¹à¤¾à¤°, Urdu: Ø¨ÛØ§Ø±, IPA: , ) is a state of the Indian union situated in the eastern part of the country. ... A British Raj province comprising British conquests from the Mughals and Marathas in central India. ... United Provinces, 1903 The United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, mainly referred to simply as the United Provinces, was a former province of British India, which existed from 1902 to 1947. ...

The British proved to be formidable foes, largely due to their superior weapons, training, and strategy. The sepoys who mutinied were especially handicapped by their lack of a centralised command and control system.

Rao Tularam of Haryana along with Pran Sukh Yadav fought with the British Army at Nasibpur and then went to collect arms from Russia which had just been in a war with the British in the Crimea, but he died on the way. When a tribal leader from Peshawar sent a letter offering help, the king replied that he should not come to Delhi because the treasury was empty and the army had become uncontrollable.^[8] Motto: ÐŸÑ€Ð¾Ñ†Ð²ÐµÑ‚Ð°Ð½Ð¸Ðµ Ð² ÐµÐ´Ð¸Ð½ÑÑ‚Ð²Ðµ - Prosperity in unity Anthem: ÐÐ¸Ð²Ñ‹ Ð¸ Ð³Ð¾Ñ€Ñ‹ Ñ‚Ð²Ð¾Ð¸ Ð²Ð¾Ð»ÑˆÐµÐ±Ð½Ñ‹, Ð Ð¾Ð´Ð¸Ð½Ð° - Your fields and mounts are wonderful, Motherland Location of Crimea (red) on the map of Ukraine. ...

Delhi

The British were slow to strike back at first but eventually two columns left Meerut and Simla. They proceeded slowly towards Delhi and fought, killed, and hanged numerous Indians along the way. At the same time, the British moved regiments from the Crimean War, and diverted European regiments headed for China to India. Shimla Shimla (शिमला) is the capital of Himachal Pradesh and a hill station in North India. ... Combatants Allies: Second French Empire United Kingdom Ottoman Empire Kingdom of Sardinia Russian Empire Bulgarian volunteers Casualties 90,000 French 35,000 Turkish 17,500 British 2,050 Sardinian killed, wounded and died of disease ~134,000 killed, wounded and died of disease The Crimean War (1854â€“1856) was fought...

After a march lasting two months, the British fought the main army of the rebels near Delhi in Badl-ke-Serai and drove them back to Delhi. The British established a base on the Delhi ridge to the north of the city and the siege began. The siege of Delhi lasted roughly from the 1st of July to the 31st of August. However, the encirclement was hardly complete—the rebels could easily receive resources and reinforcements. Later the British were joined by the Punjab Movable Column of Sikh and Pathan soldiers under John Nicholson and elements of the Gurkha Brigade. General John Nicholson John Nicholson (December 11, 1822 â€“ September 23, 1857) was a Victorian era military hero. ... Gurkha Soldiers (1896) The Brigade of Gurkhas is the collective term for British Army units that are composed of Nepalese soldiers. ...

Eagerly-awaited heavy siege guns did not guarantee an easy victory against the numerical superiority of the sepoys. Eventually the British broke through the Kashmiri gate and began a week of street fighting. When the British reached the Red Fort, Bahadur Shah had already fled to Humayun's tomb. The British had retaken the city. Kashmiri Gate Built by Military Engineer Robert Smith in 1835, the gate is named this because it used to start a pathway that led to Kashmir. ... Nasiruddin Humayun (March 6, 1508 â€“ February 22, 1556), second Mughal Emperor, ruled in India from 1530â€“1540 and 1555â€“1556. ...

The troops of the besieging force proceeded to loot and pillage the city. A large number of the citizens were slaughtered in retaliation for the Europeans and Indian 'collaborators' that had been killed by the rebel sepoys. Artillery was set up in the main mosque in the city and the neighbourhoods within the range of artillery were bombarded. These included the homes of the Muslim nobility from all over India, and contained innumerable cultural, artistic, literary and monetary riches. An example would be the loss of most of the works of Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib, thought of as the greatest Indian poet of that era.^{[citation needed]} Mirza Asadullah Baig Khan (Urdu/Persian: Ù…Ø±Ø²Ø§ Ø§Ø³Ø¯ Ø§Ù„Ù„Û Ø®Ø§Ù† ), pen-name Ghalib (Urdu/Persian: ØºØ§Ù„Ø¨, Ä¡hÄlib) and Asad (former pen-name)(27 December 1796 â€” 15 February 1869), was a renowned classical Urdu and Persian poet of the subcontinent. ...

The British soon arrested Bahadur Shah, and the next day British officer William Hodson shot his sons Mirza Mughal, Mirza Khizr Sultan, and Mirza Abu Bakr under his own authority at the Khooni Darwaza (the bloody gate) near Delhi Gate. Their heads were reportedly presented to their father the next day.^{[citation needed]} William Stephen Raikes Hodson (March 10, 1821 - March 11, 1858), known as Hodson of Hodsons Horse, British leader of irregular light cavalry during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, third son of the Rev. ... Khooni Darwaza (Hindi:à¤–à¥‚à¤¨à¥€ à¤¦à¤°à¤µà¤¾à¤œà¤¼à¤¾, literally Gateway of Blood), also referred to as Lal Darwaza (Hindi:à¤²à¤¾à¤² à¤¦à¤°à¤µà¤¾à¤œà¤¼à¤¾, Red Gate), is located in Delhi, India on the Bahadur Shah Zafar Marg. ...

Cawnpore (Kanpur)

In June, sepoys under General Wheeler in Cawnpore, (now known as Kanpur) rebelled and besieged the European entrenchment. Wheeler was not only a veteran and respected soldier, but also married to a high-caste Indian lady. He had relied on his own prestige, and his cordial relations with the Nana Sahib to thwart rebellion, and took comparatively few measures to prepare fortifications and lay in supplies and ammunition. Image File history File links Cwanpore_Memorial. ... Image File history File links Cwanpore_Memorial. ... Samuel Bourne (1834â€“1912) was a British photographer known for his work in India. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

The British endured three weeks of the Siege of Cawnpore with little water or food, suffering continuous casualties to men, women and children. On June 25 the Nana Sahib offered fairly generous surrender terms, and Wheeler had little choice but to accept. The Nana Sahib agreed to let them have safe passage to Allahabad but on June 27 when the British left their fortified barrack buildings to board the promised riverboats, firing broke out. Who fired first has remained a matter of debate. Combatants United Kingdom British East India Company Indian Mutineers Commanders General Sir Hugh Wheeler Brigadier Alexander Jack Major Edward Vibart Captain John Moore, 32nd Nana Sahib Tatya Tope Strength around 1200 soldiers and civilians around 10,000 sepoys, local citizens and mercenaries Casualties majority of the defenders unknown A period... June 25 is the 176th day of the year (177th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 189 days remaining. ... This article includes a list of works cited or a list of external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ... June 27 is the 178th day of the year (179th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 187 days remaining. ...

During the march to the boats, loyal sepoys were removed by the mutineers and lynched along with any British officer or soldier that attempted to help them, although these attacks were ignored in an attempt to reach the boats safely^{[citation needed]}. After firing began the boats' pilots fled, setting fire to the boats, and the rebellious sepoys opened fire on the British soldiers and civilians. One boat with over a dozen wounded men initially escaped, but later grounded, was caught by mutineers and pushed back down the river towards the carnage at Cawnpore. The female occupants were removed and taken away as hostages and the men, including the wounded and elderly, were hastily put against a wall and shot. Only four men eventually escaped alive from Cawnpore on one of the boats: two privates (both of whom died later during the Rebellion), a Lieutenant, and Captain Mowbray Thomson, who wrote a firsthand account of his experiences entitled The Story of Cawnpore (London) 1859.

The history sections of Cawnpore based college libraries with mainly native literature (printed clandestinely by nationalist press during British rule and inducted into institutions after independence) however, explain it differently. They say that the British had already boarded the boats and Tatya Tope raised his right hand to signal their departure. That very moment someone from the crowd blew a loud bugle which created disorder and in the ongoing bewilderment, the boatmen jumped off the boats. British soldiers and officers still had their arms and ammunition and they fired shots at these boatmen. The rebels lost all patience and started shooting indiscriminately. Nana Sahib, who was momentarily staying in Savada Kothi (Bungalow) nearby, got the message and immediately came to stop it. The remaining men were, however, killed to ensure no further unrest. [5]. Similar to suggestions that British accounts of the massacre were twisted and exagerated this account can easily be attributed to Indian Nationalistic propaganda. Tatya Tope also known as Ram Chandra Pandurang was born in 1814 at village Gola in Maharashtra. ... A row of bungalows in Virginia A bungalow (Gujarati: , Hindi: ) is a type of single storey house. ...

Following the riverside massacre, the surviving women and children were led to the Bibi-Ghar (the House of the Ladies) in Cawnpore. On the July 15, with British forces approaching Cawnpore and believing that they would not advance if there were no hostages to save, their murders were ordered. Another motive for these killings was to ensure that no information was leaked to the British after the fall of Cawnpore. After the sepoys refused to carry out this order, four butchers from the local market went into the Bibi-Ghar where they proceeded to hack the hostages down with cleavers and hatchets^{[citation needed]}. The victims' bodies were thrown down a well. July 15 is the 196th day of the year (197th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

The killing of the women and children proved to be a fatal mistake. The British public was aghast and the pro-Indian proponents lost all their support. Cawnpore became a war cry for the British and their allies for the rest of the conflict. The Nana Sahib disappeared near the end of the Rebellion and was never heard of again.

The misinterpretation that British retaliation was ghastly only after the events of Cawnpore and the Bibi Ghar may be deliberate in some accounts. Other British accounts ^[9]^[10]^[11] state that indiscriminate punitive measures were taken in early June, two weeks before the murders at the Bibi-Ghar, specifically by Lieutenant Colonel James George Smith Neill of the Madras Fusiliers (a European unit), commanding at Allahabad while moving towards Cawnpore. At the nearby town of Fatehpur, a mob had murdered the local British population. On this pretext, Neill explicitly ordered all villages beside the Grand Trunk Road to be burned, and their male inhabitants to be hanged. Neill's methods may well have induced previously undecided sepoys and communities to revolt. James George Smith Neill (May 26, 1810-September 25, 1857), British soldier, was born near Ayr,Scotland and educated at the University of Glasgow. ... This article includes a list of works cited or a list of external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ... Fatehpur is a town of Sikar district in Rajasthan, India. ...

Neill was killed in action at Lucknow on September 26 and was never called to account for his punitive measures as a number of other British commanders were, though contemporary British sources lionised Neill and his "gallant bluecaps". September 26 is the 269th day of the year (270th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

When the British retook Cawnpore later, the soldiers took their sepoy prisoners to the Bibi-Ghar and forced them to lick the bloodstains from the walls and floor^{[citation needed]}. They then hanged or "blew from the cannon" the majority of the sepoy prisoners. Although some claimed the sepoys took no actual part in the killings themselves, they did not act to stop it and this was acknowledged by Captain Thompson after the British departed Cawnpore for a second time.

Lucknow

Rebellion erupted in the state of Awadh (also known as Oudh, in modern-day Uttar Pradesh) very soon after the events in Meerut. The British commander of Lucknow, Sir Henry Lawrence, had enough time to fortify his position inside the Residency compound. British forces numbered some 1700 men, including loyal sepoys. The rebels initial assaults were unsuccessful, and so they began a barrage of artillery and musket fire into the compound. Lawrence was one of the first casualties. The rebels tried to breach the walls with explosives and bypass them via underground tunnels that led to underground close combat. After 90 days of siege, numbers of British were reduced to 300 loyal sepoys, 350 British soldiers and 550 non-combatants. This action quickly became known as the Siege of Lucknow. Combatants Great Britain Indian rebels Commanders Sir Henry Lawrence Henry Havelock Sir James Outram Sir Colin Campbell Strength rising to approx. ... Image File history File links Image-Secundra_Bagh_after_Indian_Mutiny_higher_res. ... Image File history File links Image-Secundra_Bagh_after_Indian_Mutiny_higher_res. ... Location of Awadh Awadh (Devanagari à¤…à¤µà¤§) (also known in various British historical texts as Oudh, Oundh or Oude) is a region in the center of the modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, which was before Independence known as the United Provinces of Oudh and Agra. ... , Uttar Pradesh (Hindi: , Urdu: , translation: Northern Province, IPA: , ), often referred to as U.P., is the most populous and fifth largest state in the Republic of India. ... , Lucknow (Hindi: à¤²à¤–à¤¨à¤Š, Urdu: Ù„ÙƒÙ‡Ù†Ùˆ, ) is the capital city of the state of Uttar Pradesh, India. ... Sir Henry Montgomery Lawrence (June 28, 1806 - July 4, 1857) was a British soldier and statesman in British India, who died defending Lucknow during the Indian Mutiny. ... Combatants Great Britain Indian rebels Commanders Sir Henry Lawrence Henry Havelock Sir James Outram Sir Colin Campbell Strength rising to approx. ...

On the September 25 a relief column under the command of Sir Henry Havelock and accompanied by Sir James Outram (who in theory was his superior) fought its way to Lucknow in a brief but well commanded campaign in which the numerically small column defeated Mutineer forces in a series of increasingly large battles. This became known as 'The First Relief of Lucknow', as this force was not strong enough to break the siege or extricate themselves and so was forced to join the garrison. In October another, larger, army under the new Commander-in-Chief, Sir Colin Campbell, was finally able to relieve the garrison and on the 18th of November they evacuated the city, the compound women and children leaving first. They then conducted an orderly withdrawal to now-retaken Cawnpore. September 25 is the 268th day of the year (269th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Major-General Sir Henry Havelock (5 April 1795 - 24 November 1857) was a British general. ... Colin Campbell with William Mansfield, 1st Viscount Sandhurst Field Marshal Colin Campbell, 1st Baron Clyde, GCB, KCSI (October 20, 1792â€“August 24, 1863) was a Scottish soldier. ...

Jhansi

Jhansi was a Maratha-ruled princely state in Bundelkhand. When the Raja of Jhansi died without a male heir in 1853, it was annexed to the British Raj by the Governor-General of India under the Doctrine of Lapse. His widow, Rani Lakshmi Bai, protested that she had not been allowed to adopt a successor, as per Indian custom. Jhansi à¤à¤¾à¤‚à¤¸à¥€ is a city of Uttar Pradesh state of northern India. ... The MarÄthÄs (Marathi: à¤®à¤°à¤¾à¤ à¤¾)is a collective term referring to an Indo Aryan group of Hindu warriors and peasants hailing mostly from the present-day state of Maharashtra, who created a substantial empire, covering a major part of India, in the late 17th and 18th centuries AD. The Marathas... A princely state is any state under the reign of a prince and is thus a principality taken in the broad sense. ... Bundelkhand is a geographic region of central India. ... The flag of British India British India, circa 1860 The British Raj (Raj in Hindi meaning Rule; from Sanskrit Rajya) was the British rule between 1858 and 1947 of the Indian Subcontinent, which included the present-day India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Burma (Myanmar), whereby these lands were under the colonial... The Governor-Generals Flag (1885â€“1947) depicted the Star of India on a Union Flag. ... Equestrian statue of Jhansi ki Rani Rani Lakshmi Bai also known as Jhansi Ki Rani, was the queen of Jhansi, a Maratha-ruled princely state of northern India, was one of the great nationalist heroes of the War of Independence of 1857, and a symbol of resistance to British rule...

When war broke out, Jhansi quickly became a centre of the rebellion. A small group of British officials and their families took refuge in Jhansi's fort, and the Rani negotiated their evacuation. However, when they left the fort, they were massacred by the rebels. Although the treachery might have occurred without the Rani's consent, the British suspected her of complicity, despite her protestations of innocence. Jhansi à¤à¤¾à¤‚à¤¸à¥€ is a city of Uttar Pradesh state of northern India. ...

In September and October 1857, the Rani led the successful defence of Jhansi from the invading armies of the neighbouring rajas of Datia and Orchha. In March 1858, the Central India Field Force, led by Sir Hugh Rose, advanced on and laid siege to Jhansi. The British captured the city, but the Rani fled in disguise. Datia is a city and district in northern Madhya Pradesh state, India. ... Orchha (or Urchha) is a town in Tikamgarh district of Madhya Pradesh state, India. ...

These events, with significant embellishments, form the basis of John Masters' book, Nightrunners of Bengal. John Masters (1914â€“1983) was an English officer in the British Indian Army and novelist. ... Nightrunners of Bengal is the title of the first novel by John Masters. ...

Other areas

On 1 June 1858, Rani Lakshmi Bai and a group of Maratha rebels captured the fortress city of Gwalior from the Scindia rulers, who were British allies. The Rani died on the 17th of June, the second day of the Battle of Gwalior probably by a carbine shot flying from the 8th Hussars, according to the account of three independent Indian representatives. The British captured Gwalior within the next three days. In descriptions of the scene of her last battle, she was compared to Joan Of Arc by some commentators.^{[citation needed]} June 1 is the 152nd day of the year (153rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1858 (MDCCCLVIII) is a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Gwalior is a city in Madhya Pradesh in India. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Scindia Family of India. ... It has been suggested that Name of Joan of Arc be merged into this article or section. ...

The Rohillas centred in Bareilly were also very active in the war and this area was amongst the last to be captured by the rebels. Rohillas were Muslim Pashtun highlanders (Roh means mountains and Rohilla literally means mountaineer) of Pashtun origin. ... Bareilly (Hindi: à¤¬à¤°à¥‡à¤²à¥€, Urdu: Ø¨Ø§Ø±ÛŒÙ„ÛŒ) is a metro city in Bareilly district in the northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. ...

Retaliation — "The Devil's Wind"

From the end of 1857, the British had begun to gain ground again. Lucknow was retaken in March 1858. On 8 July 1858, a peace treaty was signed and the war ended. The last rebels were defeated in Gwalior on 20 June 1858. By 1859, rebel leaders Bakht Khan and Nana Sahib had either been slain or had fled. The British adopted the old Mughal (often rendered Mogul in English) punishment for mutiny and sentenced rebels were lashed to the mouth of cannons and blown to pieces. It was a crude and brutal war, with both sides resorting to what would now be described as war crimes. In the end, however, in terms of sheer numbers, the casualties were significantly higher on the Indian side. A letter published after the fall of Delhi in the "Bombay Telegraph" and subsequently reproduced in the British press testified to the scale of the retaliation: July 8 is the 189th day of the year (190th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1858 (MDCCCLVIII) is a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Gwalior is a city in Madhya Pradesh in India. ... June 20 is the 171st day of the year (172nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 194 days remaining. ... 1858 (MDCCCLVIII) is a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Bakht Khan (1797 - 1859) was commander in chief of Indian rebel forces in the Anti British uprising of 1857 (known as Indian Mutiny in British chronicles). ... Portrait of Nana Sahib. ... In the context of war, a war crime is a punishable offense under International Law, for violations of the laws of war by any person or persons, military or civilian. ...

".... All the city people found within the walls (of the city of Delhi) when our troops entered were bayoneted on the spot, and the number was considerable, as you may suppose, when I tell you that in some houses forty and fifty people were hiding. These were not mutineers but residents of the city, who trusted to our well-known mild rule for pardon. I am glad to say they were disappointed".

Another brief letter from General Montgomery to Captain Hodson, the conqueror of Delhi exposes how the British military high command approved of the cold blooded massacre of Delhites: "All honour to you for catching the king and slaying his sons. I hope you will bag many more!" Richard Montgomery (December 2, 1738-December 31, 1775) was an Irish-American soldier. ... William Stephen Raikes Hodson (March 10, 1821 - March 11, 1858), known as Hodson of Hodsons Horse, British leader of irregular light cavalry during the Indian Rebellion of 1857, third son of the Rev. ...

Another comment on the conduct of the British soldiers after the fall of Delhi is of Captain Hodson himself in his book, Twelve years in India: "With all my love for the army, I must confess, the conduct of professed Christians, on this occasion, was one of the most humiliating facts connected with the siege."

Edward Vibart, a nineteen year-old officer, also recorded his experience: "It was literally murder... I have seen many bloody and awful sights lately but such a one as I witnessed yesterday I pray I never see again. The women were all spared but their screams on seeing their husbands and sons butchered, were most painful... Heaven knows I feel no pity, but when some old grey bearded man is brought and shot before your very eyes, hard must be that man's heart I think who can look on with indifference..."

As a result, the end of the war was followed by the execution of a vast majority of combatants from the Indian side as well as large numbers of civilians perceived to be sympathetic to the rebel cause. The British press and British government did not advocate clemency of any kind, though Governor General Canning tried to be sympathetic to native sensibilities, earning the scornful sobriquet "Clemency Canning". Soldiers took very few prisoners and often executed them later. Whole villages were wiped out for apparent pro-rebel sympathies. The Indians called this retaliation "the Devil's Wind."^{[citation needed]} The Right Honourable Charles John Canning, 1st & Last Earl Canning (14 December 1812 - 17 June 1862), English statesman, Governor-General of India during the Mutiny of 1857, was the youngest child of George Canning, and was born at Brompton, near London. ...

Reorganisation

The rebellion saw the end of the British East India Company's rule in India. In August, by the Government of India Act 1858, the company was formally dissolved and its ruling powers over India were transferred to the British Crown. A new British government department, the India Office, was created to handle the governance of India, and its head, the Secretary of State for India, was entrusted with formulating Indian policy. The Governor-General of India gained a new title (Viceroy of India), and implemented the policies devised by the India Office. The British colonial administration embarked on a program of reform, trying to integrate Indian higher castes and rulers into the government and abolishing attempts at Westernization. The viceroy stopped land grabs, decreed religious tolerance and admitted Indians into civil service, albeit mainly as subordinates. Image File history File links BahadurShah_Zafar. ... Image File history File links BahadurShah_Zafar. ... Charles Shepherd was most notably the printer for and co-worker of Samuel Bourne during his work in India, and co-founder of Shepherd & Bourne, their studio based in Calcutta. ... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was the first joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). ... The movement of the Indians at this time were extremely regulated before the work of such prominent Muslims such as Sir Shahaab Uddin Hyderabadi and Khizar Ali Punjabi. ... The India Office was the British government department responsible for the government of British India. ... The office of Secretary of State for India or India Secretary was created in 1858 when India was brought under direct British rule (British Raj). ... The Governor-General of India (or Governor-General and Viceroy of India) was the head of the British administration in India. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Militarily, the rebellion transformed both the "native" and European armies of British India. The British increased the ratio of British to Indian soldiers. Regiments which had remained loyal to the British were retained, and the number of Gurkha units, which had been crucial in the Delhi campaign, were increased. The inefficiencies of the old organisation, which had estranged sepoys from their British officers, were addressed, and the post-1857 units were mainly organised on the "irregular" system. (Before the mutinies, Regular infantry units of the Bengal Army had 26 British officers, who held every position of authority down to the second-in-command of each company. In Irregular units, there were only six or seven or even fewer British officers, who associated themselves far more closely with their soldiers, while more trust and responsibility was given to the Indian officers.) Most new units were raised from among the so-called "Martial Races", which were not part of mainstream Indian culture. Gurkha, also spelt as Gorkha, are people from Nepal who take their name from the eighth century Hindu warrior-saint Guru Gorakhnath. ... Martial Race or Martial races theory is an ideology based on the assumption that certain ethnic races were more martially inclined as opposed to the general populace or other races. ...

Sepoy artillery was abolished also, leaving all artillery (except some small detachments of mountain guns) in British hands. The post-rebellion changes formed the basis of the military organisation of British India until the early twentieth century.

Bahadur Shah was tried for treason by a military commission assembled at Delhi, and exiled to Rangoon where he died in 1862, finally bringing the Mughal dynasty to an end. In 1877 Queen Victoria took the title of Empress of India on the advice of her Prime Minister, Benjamin Disraeli. Yangôn, formerly Rangoon, population 4,504,000 (2001), is the capital of Myanmar. ... Victoria Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Empress of India Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria) (24 May 1819–22 January 1901) was a Queen of the United Kingdom, reigning from 20 June 1837 until her death. ... Signature of King Edward VIII The R and I after his name indicate king and emperor in Latin (Rex and Imperator, respectively). ... Benjamin Disraeli, 1st Earl of Beaconsfield, KG, PC, FRS (December 21, 1804 â€“ April 19, 1881), born Benjamin DIsraeli was a British Conservative statesman and literary figure. ...

Debate over name of conflict

Although many Indian historians do term it as mutiny as well, on the Indian subcontinent it is commonly referred to as a "War of Independence", and the use of the term "Indian Mutiny" is considered by many as unacceptable and offensive, as it is perceived to belittle what they see as a "First War of Independence" and therefore reflecting a biased, imperialistic attitude of the erstwhile colonists. William Dalrymple (born 1965 in Scotland) is a historian, travel writer and journalist. ...

For example, in October, 2006, the Speaker of the Lok Sabha, the lower house of Indian Parliament said: Lok Sabha The Lok Sabha (House of the People) is the lower house in the Parliament of India. ...

Debate over the national character of the rebellion

Historians remain divided on whether the rebellion can properly be considered a war of Indian independence or not, although it is popularly considered to be one in India. Arguments against include:

A second school of thought while acknowledging the validity of the above-mentioned arguments opines that this rebellion may indeed be called a war of India's independence. The reasons advanced are:

Besides this, a contemporary British chronicler, Thomas Lowe, in Central India during the rebellion, wrote in 1860: “To live in India, now, was like standing on the verge of a volcanic crater, the sides of which were fast crumbling away from our feet, while the boiling lava was ready to erupt and consume us.” Further, he exclaimed: “The infanticide Rajput, the bigoted Brahmin, the fanatic Mussalman, had joined together in the cause; cow-killer and the cow-worshipper, the pig-hater and the pig-eater… had revolted together.” - ^[13] The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation policy devised by Lord Dalhousie, who was the Governor General of India between 1848 and 1856. ... It has been suggested that Mughal Era be merged into this article or section. ... Image File history File links Indian_Rebellion_Hangings. ... Image File history File links Indian_Rebellion_Hangings. ... Felice Beato, self-portrait, c. ... Location of Awadh Awadh (Devanagari à¤…à¤µà¤§) (also known in various British historical texts as Oudh, Oundh or Oude) is a region in the center of the modern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, which was before Independence known as the United Provinces of Oudh and Agra. ... Bundelkhand is a geographic region of central India. ... Rohilkhand is a region of northwestern Uttar Pradesh state of India. ...

This discussion shows that the term "national war" is subject to individual opinions and cannot be answered decisively.

In Popular Culture

Plans are afoot by the Government of India to celebrate 2007 as the 150^th anniversary of what Indians term as "India's First War of Independence". In the Union Budget of 2007, an amount of Rs. 10 crore was set aside for the celebration. The (British) National Army Museum in London is mounting a display to mark the 150^th anniversary on 10 May,^[14] and there is also an online exhibition called "India Rising".^[15]

Bollywood (Hindi: , Urdu: ) is the informal name given to the popular Mumbai-based Hindi language film industry in India. ... Bollywood (Hindi: , Urdu: ) is the informal name given to the popular Mumbai-based Hindi language film industry in India. ... Bollywood (Hindi: , Urdu: ) is the informal name given to the popular Mumbai-based Hindi language film industry in India. ... Kranti is a 1981 Indian Hindi film. ... ... Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom is an Academy Award winning 1984 action/adventure film directed by Steven Spielberg. ... A drawing of Thug Prisoners published by Illustrated London News, C. 1857 Thuggee (or tuggee) (from Hindi thag thief, from Sanskrit sthaga scoundrel, from sthagati to conceal) was an Indian network of secret fraternities who were engaged in murdering and robbing travellers, operating from the 17th century (possibly as early... 1. ... A princely state is any state under the reign of a prince and is thus a principality taken in the broad sense. ... King of the Khyber Rifles is a novel by British writer Talbot Mundy. ... â€œThe Great War â€ redirects here. ... Flashman in the Great Game is a 1975 novel by George MacDonald Fraser. ... Harry Paget Flashman is a fictional character originally created by the author Thomas Hughes in his semi-autobiographical work Tom Browns Schooldays, first published in 1857. ... George MacDonald Fraser (born 1926 in Carlisle, England) is a writer of Scottish descent. ...

References

The National Army Museum is the British Armys central museum. ... Somnath Chatterjee (born July 25, 1929 in Tezpur, Assam) is a politician in India. ... The Speaker of the Lok Sabha is the presiding officer of the lower house of Parliament of India. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... The National Army Museum is the British Armys central museum. ... The National Army Museum is the British Armys central museum. ...

External links

History of Bharat on Bharatadesam.Com
The Bollywood film The Rising depicts events around the life of Mangal Pandey
Truth behind 1857 part I
Truth behind 1857 part II
Truth behind 1857 part III
First War of Independence - Sify
Development of Situation-January to July 1857 - Maj (Retd) AGHA HUMAYUN AMIN from WASHINGTON DC
The Library of Congress (US) - Research Centers - Country Study - India @ 1857
Alexander Ganse (World History at KMLA - Mutiny 1857
The Sepoy War of 1857 - Emory.edu
The Indian Mutiny @ The British Empire
1857 - Sikh Point of View
Some interesting Paintings related to 1857 Indian War of Independence
Betraying The White Queen's Salt: Introductory Notes For The Indian Mutiny, 1857-59 Compiled By John French
British Army Official Records of the Era
Karl Marx, New York Tribune, 1853-1858, The Revolt in India
India marks uprising anniversary - BBC News 7th May 2007
India 'neglects' its historic heritage - BBC News 10th May 2007
Indians mark revolt anniversary - BBC News 11th May 2007
In Pictures: Rare images of the 1857 uprising in India - BBC News 12th May 2007

Vellore Mutiny (May 10, 1806) was the first instance of a mutiny by the Indian sepoys against the British East India Company. ... Azimullah Khan Yusufzai (b. ... This article is about the History of South Asia. ... The flag of British India British India, circa 1860 The British Raj (Raj in Hindi meaning Rule; from Sanskrit Rajya) was the British rule between 1858 and 1947 of the Indian Subcontinent, which included the present-day India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Burma (Myanmar), whereby these lands were under the colonial... Titumir (Bangla: à¦¤à¦¿à¦¤à§à¦®à§€à¦°) was a rebel against the zamindars and Britsh colonial system in 19th century Bengal, part of British India. ... Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817 - 1898) Sir Syed Ahmad Khan Bahadur (October 17, 1817, Delhi - March 27, 1898, Aligarh), was an Indian Muslim educator, jurist, and author, who led the Aligarh Movement which resulted in the formation of the Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College, which later became Aligarh Muslim University, at... Martial Race or Martial races theory is an ideology based on the assumption that certain ethnic races were more martially inclined as opposed to the general populace or other races. ... Bollywood (Hindi: , Urdu: ) is the informal name given to the popular Mumbai-based Hindi language film industry in India. ... Mangal Pandey: The Rising (Indian Title) or The Ballad of Mangal Pandey (International Title) (released in India on August 12, 2005) is an Indian movie based on the life of Mangal Pandey, an Indian soldier in the 1857 Revolt against the British. ... For the Hindi movie of the same name, see The Rising (Indian film) Mangal Pandey (born (presumably): July 19, 1827, died: 8 April 1857), (Hindi: à¤®à¤‚à¤—à¤² à¤ªà¤¾à¤‚à¤¡à¥‡) also known as Shaheed Mangal Pandey (Shaheed means martyr in Arabic and Hindustani), was a sepoy (soldier) in the 34th Regiment of the Bengal Native... The New York Tribune building - today the site of Pace Universitys building complex of One Pace Plaza in New York City The New York Tribune was established by Horace Greeley in 1841 and was long considered one of the leading newspapers in the United States. ... The British Broadcasting Corporation, usually known as the BBC, is the largest broadcasting corporation in the world in terms of audience numbers, employing 26,000 staff in the United Kingdom alone and with a budget of more than GBÂ£4 billion (US$7. ... The British Broadcasting Corporation, usually known as the BBC, is the largest broadcasting corporation in the world in terms of audience numbers, employing 26,000 staff in the United Kingdom alone and with a budget of more than GBÂ£4 billion (US$7. ... The British Broadcasting Corporation, usually known as the BBC, is the largest broadcasting corporation in the world in terms of audience numbers, employing 26,000 staff in the United Kingdom alone and with a budget of more than GBÂ£4 billion (US$7. ... The British Broadcasting Corporation, usually known as the BBC, is the largest broadcasting corporation in the world in terms of audience numbers, employing 26,000 staff in the United Kingdom alone and with a budget of more than GBÂ£4 billion (US$7. ...

v • d • e Indian Independence Movement
History:	Colonisation - British East India Company - Plassey - Buxar - British India - French India - Portuguese India - More...
Philosophies:	Indian nationalism - Swaraj - Gandhism - Satyagraha - Hindu nationalism - Indian Muslim nationalism - Swadeshi - Socialism
Events and movements:	Rebellion of 1857 - Partition of Bengal - Revolutionaries - Champaran and Kheda - Jallianwala Bagh Massacre - Non-Cooperation - Flag Satyagraha - Bardoli - 1928 Protests - Nehru Report - Purna Swaraj - Salt Satyagraha - Act of 1935 - Legion Freies Indien - Cripps' mission - Quit India - Indian National Army - Bombay Mutiny
Organisations:	Indian National Congress - Ghadar - Home Rule - Khudai Khidmatgar - Swaraj Party - Anushilan Samiti - Azad Hind - More...
Indian leaders:	Mangal Pandey - Rani of Jhansi - Bal Gangadhar Tilak - Gopal Krishna Gokhale - Lala Lajpat Rai - Bipin Chandra Pal - Mahatma Gandhi - Sardar Patel - Subhash Chandra Bose - Badshah Khan - Jawaharlal Nehru - Maulana Azad - Chandrasekhar Azad - Rajaji - Bhagat Singh - Sarojini Naidu - Purushottam Das Tandon - Tanguturi Prakasam - More...
British Raj:	Robert Clive - James Outram - Dalhousie - Irwin - Linlithgow - Wavell - Stafford Cripps - Mountbatten - More...
Independence:	Cabinet Mission - Indian Independence Act - Partition of India - Political integration - Constitution - Republic of India

Categories: NPOV disputes | Articles with unsourced statements since February 2007 | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements since March 2007 | Articles with unsourced statements since April 2007 | Indian Rebellion of 1857 | British rule in India | British East India Company | Military of British India | Mutinies | Rebellions in Asia | Wars involving India | Wars involving the United Kingdom | Lucknow | 1857 in India | 1858 Image File history File links 1931_Flag_of_India. ... Image File history File links Gandhi_Salt_March. ... The Indian independence movement incorporated the efforts by Indians to liberate the region from British rule and form the nation-state of India. ... Image File history File links AzadHindFlag. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (3496x2418, 835 KB) en: Gandhi during the Salt March, March 1930. ... European settlements in India (1501-1739). ... The British East India Company, sometimes referred to as John Company, was the first joint-stock company (the Dutch East India Company was the first to issue public stock). ... Combatants British East India Company Siraj Ud Daulah (Nawab of Bengal), La Compagnie des Indes Orientales Commanders Colonel Robert Clive (later Governor of Bengal and Baron of Plassey) Mir Jafar Ali Khan (Commander-in-chief of the Nawab), M. Sinfray (French Secretary to the Council) Strength 2,200 European soldiers... Combatants Bengal, British East India Company Commanders Mir Kasim, Hector Munro Strength 40,000 infantry, 18,000 infantry, Casualties high low Battle of Buxar (October 1764) was a significant battle fought between the forces under the command of the British East India Company on the one side, and the combined... British India (otherwise known as The British Raj) was a historical period during which most of the Indian subcontinent, or present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar, were under the colonial authority of the British Empire (Undivided India). ... French India is highlighted in light blue on the subcontinent. ... Portuguese India (Portuguese: or Estado da Ãndia) was the aggregate of Portugals colonial holdings in India. ... Map of India. ... Self rule is the term used to described a people or group being able to exercise all of the necessary functions of power without intervention from any authority which they cannot themselves alter. ... Gandhism (or Gandhi-ism) is an informal reference to the vision, core inspirations, principles, beliefs and philosophy of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, who was a major political and spiritual leader of India and the Indian Independence Movement. ... Mohandas Karamchand â€œMahatmaâ€ Gandhi, who developed Satyagraha Satyagraha (Sanskrit: à¤¸à¤¤à¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤—à¥à¤°à¤¹ satyÄgraha) is a variety of nonviolent resistance developed by Mohandas Gandhi. ... Hindu nationalism is a nationalist ideology that sees the modern state of the Republic of India as a Hindu nation (Hindu Rashtra), and seeks to preserve the Hindu heritage. ... Indian Muslim nationalism refers to the political and cultural expression of nationalism, founded upon the religious tenets and identity of Islam, of the Muslims of the Indian subcontinent. ... Swadeshi is the Indian term for the boycott of British goods. ... Socialism refers to a broad array of doctrines or political movements that envisage a socio-economic system in which property and the distribution of wealth are subject to control by the community. ... Combatants 7 Indian princely states, Freedom Fighters, Rebelling East India Company Sepoys British East India Company Wikisource has an original article from the 1911 EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica about: Indian Mutiny The Indian Rebellion of 1857 (Hindi: à¥§à¥®à¥«à¥ à¤•à¤¾ à¤ªà¥à¤°à¤¥à¤® à¤à¤¾à¤°à¤¤à¥€à¤¯ à¤¸à¥à¤µà¤¤à¤‚à¤¤à¥à¤°à¤¤à¤¾ à¤¸à¤‚à¤—à¥à¤°à¤¾à¤®), often known in Western literature as the Indian Mutiny and mainly in Indian literature... The Indian independence movement incorporated the efforts by Indians to liberate the region from British rule and form the nation-state of India. ... Revolutionary movement for Indian independence is often a less-highlighted aspect of Indian independence movement - the underground revolutionary factions. ... The first Satyagraha revolutions inspired by Mahatma Gandhi in the Indian Independence Movement occurred in Kheda district of Gujarat and the Champaran district of Bihar between the years of 1918 and 1919. ... The Amritsar Massacre The Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, also known as the Amritsar Massacre, was named after the Jallianwala Bagh (Garden) in the northern Indian city of Amritsar, where, on April 13, 1919, British Indian Army soldiers under the command of Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer open fired on an unarmed gathering... ... Flag Satyagraha is a term that describes campaigns of peaceful civil disobedience during the Indian independence movement that focused on exercising the right and freedom to hoist the nationalist flag and challenge the legitimacy of British Raj in India through the defiance of laws prohibiting the hoisting of nationalist flags... The Bardoli Satyagraha of 1925 in the state of Gujarat, India during the British Raj was a major episode of civil disobedience and revolt in the Indian Independence Movement. ... The Indian Statutory Commission was a group of seven British Members of Parliament that had been dispatched to India in 1927 to study constitutional reform in that colony. ... The Nehru Report (1928) was a memorandum outlining a proposed new Dominion (see dominion status) constitution for India. ... The flag adopted in 1931 and used by the Provisional Government of Free India during the Second World War. ... Scenes on the eve of the Salt Satyagraha, Gandhis famous 240 mile march on foot to the sea at Dandi. ... 24. ... The Legion Freies Indien, or the Indische Freiwilligen-Legion Regiment 950 variously known as the Tiger Legion, the Free India Legion (in English), The Azad Hind Legion, or the I.R 950 (Indisches Infanterie Regiment 950) was an Indian armed unit raised in 1941 attached to the Wehrmacht, ostensibly according... Sir Stafford Cripps Mission was an attempt in late March of 1942 by the British War Cabinet to secure Indian cooperation and support for their efforts in World War II. Led by Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru, the majority Indian National Congress and its supporters were engaged in a program of... The Quit India Movement (Bharat Chhodo Andolan or the August Movement) was a civil disobedience movement in India launched in August 1942 in response to Mahatma Gandhis call for immediate independence of India. ... The Indian National Army (I.N.A) or Azad Hind Fauj was the army of the Arzi Hukumat-e-Azad Hind (The Provisional Government of Free India ) which fought along with the Japanese 15th Army during the Japanese Campaign in Burma, and in the Battle of Imphal, during the Second... The Bombay Mutiny was the mutiny of the Royal Indian Navy in Bombay (Mumbai) harbour on 21 February 1946. ... The flag adopted in 1931 and used by the Provisional Government of Free India during the Second World War. ... The Ghadar Party was an organization founded by the Indians(mostly Punjabis, of the United States and Canada in June, 1913 with the aim to liberate India from British rule. ... Home Rule flag The Home Rule Movement was formed by Annie Besant and Lokmanya Tilak with the aim of seeking a Dominion status within the British Empire to the Indian Empire in 1917. ... An old red shirt activist, picture taken by Mukulika Banerjee: The Pathan Unarmed Khudai Khidmatgar (Pashto: Ø®Ø¯Ø§ÛŒ Ø®Ø¯Ù…ØªÚ¯Ø±) literally translates as the servants of God. ... Swaraj Party, a political party of colonial India, was organized in 1923 by Deshbandhu Chitaranjan Das (1870-1925) and Motilal Nehru (1861-1931), to participate in legislative councils. ... Anushilan Samiti was the principal secret revolutionary organisation operating in Bengal in the first quarter of the 20th century. ... Flag of the Provisional Government of Free India. ... For the Hindi movie of the same name, see The Rising (Indian film) Mangal Pandey (born (presumably): July 19, 1827, died: 8 April 1857), (Hindi: à¤®à¤‚à¤—à¤² à¤ªà¤¾à¤‚à¤¡à¥‡) also known as Shaheed Mangal Pandey (Shaheed means martyr in Arabic and Hindustani), was a sepoy (soldier) in the 34th Regiment of the Bengal Native... Lakshmibai, The Rani of Jhansi (c. ... Bal Gangadhar Tilak (1856 - 1920), was an Indian nationalist, social reformer and freedom fighter who was the first popular leader of the Indian Independence Movement. ... Gopal Krishna Gokhale (à¤—à¥‹à¤ªà¤¾à¤² à¤•à¥ƒà¤·à¥â€à¤£ à¤—à¥‹à¤–à¤²à¥‡) born May 9, 1866, in Kolhat, Maharashtra, India was one of the founding social and political leaders during the Indian Independence Movement against the British Empire in India. ... Lala Lajpat Rai was an Indian author and politician who is chiefly remembered as a leader in the Indian fight for freedom from the British Raj. ... He was one of the trilogy of the three Extremist patriots of the Indian National Congress who had fought and gave his life during Indias freedom struggle in the first half of the twentieth century. ... Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Gujarati: , Hindi: , IAST: mohandÄs karamcand gÄndhÄ«, IPA: ) (October 2, 1869 â€“ January 30, 1948), was a major political and spiritual leader of India and the Indian independence movement. ... Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel Vallabhbhai Jhaverbhai Patel (October 31, 1875–December 15, 1950), popularly referred to as Sardar Patel, was an Indian statesman, an important leader of the Indian National Congress and the deputy Prime Minister in the first cabinet of Independent India. ... Subhash Chandra Bose, (Bangla: à¦¨à§‡à¦¤à¦¾à¦œà§€ à¦¸à§à¦à¦¾à¦· à¦šà¦¨à§à¦¦à§à¦° à¦¬à¦¸à§ ( à¤¸à¥à¤à¤¾à¤· à¤šà¤¦à¤‚à¤° à¤µà¤¸à¥ ) Shubhash ChÃ´ndro Boshu) (January 23, 1897 â€“ presumably August 18, 1945 [although this is disputed]note), also known as Netaji, was one of the most prominent leaders of the Indian Independence Movement against the British Raj and was a prominent supporter of the Axis dictatorships as... Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan (also known as Bacha Khan) (1890 - January 20, 1988) was a Pathan political and spiritual leader known for his nonviolent opposition to British rule during the final years of the Empire on the Indian sub-continent. ... Jawaharlal Nehru (Hindi: , IPA: , from Persian JavÃ¢her-e Laal, meaning Red Jewel) (November 14, 1889 â€“ May 27, 1964) was a political leader of the Indian National Congress, was a pivotal figure during the Indian independence movement and served as the first Prime Minister of the Republic of India. ... Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (1888 - August 1958) was a freedom fighter in Indias struggle for Independence from Britain. ... Chandrasekhar Azad à¤šà¤‚à¤¦à¥à¤°à¤¶à¥‡à¤–à¤° à¤†à¤œà¤¾à¤¦ (July 23, 1906 â€“ February 27, 1931) was an Indian revolutionary and the mentor of Bhagat Singh. ... Rajaji Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari (December 1878 - December 25, 1972), known as or Rajaji or C.R., was an Indian lawyer, writer, statesman and a Hindu spiritualist. ... Bhagat Siá¹…gh (Punjabi: à¨à¨—à¨¤ à¨¸à¨¿à©°à¨˜) (September 28,[1] 1907â€“March 23, 1931) was an Indian freedom fighter, considered to be one of the most famous revolutionaries of the Indian independence movement. ... Sarojini Naidu (February 13, 1879 - March 2, 1949) was known as Bharatiya Kokila (The Nightingale of India) and was a child prodigy, freedom fighter and poet. ... Purushottam Das Tandon (August 1, 1882 â€“ July 1, 1962), was a freedom fighter, social reformer and national political leader of India. ... It has been suggested that Tanguturi Prakasham be merged into this article or section. ... Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive, meeting with Mir Jafar after Plassey, by Francis Hayman Major-General Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive of Plassey, KB (29 September 1725 - 22 November 1774), also known as Clive of India, was the soldier of fortune and commander who established the military supremacy of the... Sir James Outram Sir James Outram (January 29, 1803-March 11, 1863), English general, and one of the heroes of the Indian Mutiny, was the son of Benjamin Outram of Butterley Hall, Derbyshire, civil engineer. ... James Andrew Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess and 10th Earl of Dalhousie (April 22, 1812–December 19, 1860) was a British statesman, and a colonial administrator in India. ... Edward Frederick Lindley Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax, KG, OM, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, PC (16 April 1881â€“23 December 1959), known as The Lord Irwin from 1925 until 1934 and as The Viscount Halifax from 1934 until 1944, was a British Conservative politician. ... Victor Alexander John Hope, 2nd Marquess of Linlithgow (24 September 1887 - 5 January 1952) was a British statesman who served as Viceroy of India from 1936 to 1943. ... Field Marshal Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell, GCB, GCSI, GCIE, CMG, MC, PC (May 5, 1883 â€“ May 24, 1950) was a British field marshal and the commander of British Army forces in the Middle East during World War II. He led British forces to victory over the Italians, only... Sir Richard Stafford Cripps, known as Stafford Cripps, (April 24, 1889 - April 21, 1952) was a British Labour politician and Chancellor of the Exchequer for several years following World War II. // Cripps was born in London. ... Admiral of the Fleet Louis Francis Albert Victor Nicholas Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, KG, GCB, OM, GCSI, GCIE, GCVO, DSO, PC (25 June 1900 â€“ 27 August 1979) was a British admiral and statesman and an uncle of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh. ... The British Cabinet Mission of 1946 to India aimed to discuss and finalize plans for the transfer of power from the British Raj to Indian leadership, providing India with independence under Dominion status in the Commonwealth of Nations. ... 1. ... Caution! This Article Is Under Construction This article or section is currently in the middle of an expansion or major revamping. ... India under British Raj in 1922, prior to its partition and integration after independence. ...

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