This is a sub-article of Islamic science and astronomy.

In its origins and development, Islamic astronomy closely parallels the genesis of other Islamic sciences in its assimilation of foreign material and the amalgamation of the disparate elements of that material to create a science that was essentially Islamic. These include Indian and Sassanid works in particular. Some Hellenistic texts were also translated and built upon as well. This is a subarticle to Islamic studies and science. ... A giant Hubble mosaic of the Crab Nebula, a supernova remnant Astronomy is the science of celestial objects (such as stars, planets, comets, and galaxies) and phenomena that originate outside the Earths atmosphere (such as auroras and cosmic background radiation). ... Sassanid Empire at its greatest extent The Sassanid dynasty (also Sassanian) was the name given to the kings of Persia during the era of the second Persian Empire, from 224 until 651, when the last Sassanid shah, Yazdegerd III, lost a 14-year struggle to drive out the Umayyad Caliphate... The term Hellenistic (established by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen) in the history of the ancient world is used to refer to the shift from a culture dominated by ethnic Greeks, however scattered geographically, to a culture dominated by Greek-speakers of whatever ethnicity, and from the political dominance...

Some stars in the sky, such as Aldebaran, are still today recognized with their Arabic names. Aldebaran, (α Tau / α Tauri / Alpha Tauri), is the brightest star in the constellation Taurus and one of the brightest stars in the nighttime sky. ...

History

Pre-Islamic Arabs had no scientific astronomy. Their knowledge of stars was only empirical, limited to what they observed reagrding the rising and setting of stars. The rise of Islam provoked increased Arab thought in this field.^[1]

Science historian Donald. R. Hill has divided Islamic Astronomy into the four following distinct time periods in its history.

700-825 CE

The period of assimilation and syncretisation of earlier Hellenistic, Indian, and Sassanid astronomy. The term Hellenistic (established by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen) in the history of the ancient world is used to refer to the shift from a culture dominated by ethnic Greeks, however scattered geographically, to a culture dominated by Greek-speakers of whatever ethnicity, and from the political dominance... Sassanid Empire at its greatest extent The Sassanid dynasty (also Sassanian) was the name given to the kings of Persia during the era of the second Persian Empire, from 224 until 651, when the last Sassanid shah, Yazdegerd III, lost a 14-year struggle to drive out the Umayyad Caliphate...

During this period many Indian and Persian texts were translated into Arabic. The most notorious of the texts was Zij al-Sindhind,^[2] translated by Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Fazari and Yaqub ibn Tariq in 777. Sources indicate that the text was translated after, in 770, an Indian astronomer visited the court of Caliph Al-Mansur. Another text translated was the Zij al-Shah, a collection of astronomical tables compiled in Persia over two centuries. For main article see: Caliphate Caliph is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, or global Islamic nation. ... pooperson he was the first bisexual man to have a heshe baby This article is abliph Al Mansur of Baghdad. ...

Fragements of text, during this period, indicate that Arabs adopted the use sine function (inherited from India) in place of the chords of arc used in Greek trignometry.^[3] Look up chord in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The term arc is derived from the Latin word arcus meaning bow. Look up arc in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

825-1025 CE

This period of vigorous investigation, in which the superiority of the Ptolemaic system of astronomy was accepted and significant contributions made to it. Astronomical research was greatly supported by the Abbasid caliph al-Mamun. Baghdad and Damascus became the centers of such activity. The caliphs not only supported this work financially, but endowed the work with formal prestige. Mediaeval drawing of the Ptolemaic system. ... Abbasid (Arabic: العبّاسيّون, AbbāsÄ«yÅ«n) is the dynastic name generally given to the caliph of Baghdad, the second of the two great Sunni dynasties of the Arab Empire, that overthrew the Umayyad caliphs from all but Spain. ... For main article see: Caliphate Caliph is the head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, or global Islamic nation. ... Abu Jafar al-Mamun ibn Harun (786 - 833) (المأمون) was an Abbasid caliph who reigned from 813 until his death in 833. ... Baghdad (Arabic ) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate. ... Damascus at sunset Damascus ( translit: Also commonly: الشام ash-Shām) is the largest city of Syria and is also the capital. ...

The first major Muslim work of astronomy was Zij al-Sindh by al-Khwarizimi in 830. The work contains tables for the movements of the sun, the moon and the five planets known at the time. The work is significant as it introduced Ptolemaic concepts into Islamic sciences. This work also marks the turning point in Islamic astronomy. Hitherto, Muslim astronomers had adopted a primarily research approach to the field, translating works of others and learning already discovered knowledge. Al-Khwarizmi's work marked the beginning of untraditional methods of study and calculations.^[4]

In 850, al-Farghani wrote Kitab fi Jawani (meaning "A compendium of he science of stars"). The book primarily gave a summary of Ptolemic cosmography. However, it also corrected Ptolemy based on findings of earlier Arab astronomers. Al-Farghani gave revised values for the obliquity of the ecliptic, the precessional movement of the apogees of the sun and the moon, and the circumference of the earth. The books was widely circulated through the Muslim world, and even translated into Latin.^[5] This article is about several astronomical terms (apogee & perigee, aphelion & perihelion, generic equivalents based on apsis, and related but rarer terms. ...

1025-1450 CE

The period when a distinctive Islamic system of astronomy flourished. The period began as the Muslim astronomers began questioning the framework of the Ptolemaic system of astronomy. Mediaeval drawing of the Ptolemaic system. ...

In 1070, Abu Ubayd al-Juzjani published the Tarik al-Aflak. In his work, he indicated the so-called "equant" problem of the Ptolemic model. Al-Juzjani even proposed a solution for the problem. In al-Andalus, the anonymous work al-Istidrak ala Batlamyus (meaning "Recapitulation regarding Ptolemy"), included a list of objections to the Ptolemic astronomy. A manuscript page of the Quran in the script developed in al-Andalus, 12th century Al-ʾAndalus (Arabic الأندلس) is the Arabic name given to the southern parts of theIberian Peninsula by its Muslim conquerors; it refers to both the Emirate (ca 750–929) and Caliphate of Cordoba (929–1031...

The most important work, however, was Al-Shuku ala Batlamyus (meaning "Doubts on Ptolemy"). In this, the author summed up the inconsistencies of the Ptolemic models. Many astronomers took up the challenge posed in this work, namely to develop alternate models that evaded such errors. The most notorious of these astronomers include: Muayyad al-Din Urdi 9circa 1266), Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201-74), Qutb al-Din al Shirazi (circa 1311), Sadr al-Sharia al-Bukhari (circa 1347), Ibn al-Shatir (circa 1375), and Ala al-Qushji (circa 1474).^[6]

1450-1900 CE

The period of stagnation, when the traditional system of astronomy continued to be practised with enthusiasm, but with rapidly decreasing innovation of any major significance.

A large corpus of literature from Islamic astronomy remains today, numbering around some 10,000 manuscript volumes scattered throughout the world. Much of which has not even been catalogued. Even so, a reasonably accurate picture of Islamic activity in the field of astronomy can be reconstructed.

Celestial passages in the Qur'an

Some Muslims quote verses from the Qur'an that show God encourages people to engage in astronomy, in order to affirm the existence of God. Ayah is the Arabic word for sign or miracle. ... The Qurān [1] (Arabic: ‎, literally the recitation; also called ‎ The Noble Qurān; also transliterated as Quran, Koran, and Al-Quran) is the central religious text of Islam. ...

Regarding astronomy:

• Sura 3.190

In the creation of the heavens and the earth and in the alternation of the night and the day there are indeed Signs for men of understanding.;

• Sura 67.3-4

Who has created seven heavens in harmony. No incongruity canst thou see in the creation of the Gracious God. Then look again. Seest thou any flaw?

Azophi's The Depiction of Celestial Constellations. The constellation pictured here is Sagittarius.

Regarding Physical cosmology: Sura (sometimes referred to as Surah) ( ) is an Arabic term literally meaning picture, evidence, or proof. ... Surat āl-Imrān (Arabic: آل عمران ) (The Family of Amram) is the 3rd sura of the Quran with 200 ayat. ... Sura (sometimes referred to as Surah) ( ) is an Arabic term literally meaning picture, evidence, or proof. ... Surat Al-Mulk (The Sovereignty, Control) is the 67th sura of the Quran with 30 ayat. ... Image File history File links Book_Al_Sufi. ... Image File history File links Book_Al_Sufi. ... Al Sufi from The Depiction of Celestial Constellations Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi (December 7, 903 – May 25, 986) was a Persian astronomer also known as Abd ar-Rahman as-Sufi, or Abd al-Rahman Abu al-Husain, and known in the west as Azophi. ... For other uses, see Sagittarius. ... Physical cosmology, as a branch of astrophysics, is the study of the large-scale structure of the universe and is concerned with fundamental questions about its formation and evolution. ...

• Sura 21.30

Do not the disbelievers see that the heavens and the earth were a closed up-mass, then WE opened them out? And WE made of water every living thing. Will they not then believe?

• Sura 41.11

Then HE turned to the heaven, while it was something like smoke, and said to it and to the earth; `Come ye both of you in obedience, willingly or unwillingly.' They said, `We come willingly. [1]

Sura (sometimes referred to as Surah) ( ) is an Arabic term literally meaning picture, evidence, or proof. ... Surat al-Anbiya (The Prophets) is the 21st sura of the Quran. ... Sura (sometimes referred to as Surah) ( ) is an Arabic term literally meaning picture, evidence, or proof. ... Surat Fussilat (Explained In Detail) is the 41st sura of the Quran with 54 ayat. ...

Observatories

Medieval manuscript by Qotbeddin Shirazi depicting an epicyclic planetary model.

The first systematic observations in Islam are reported to have taken place under the patronage of al-Mamun. Here, and in many other private observatories from Damascus to Baghdad, meridian degrees were measured, solar parameters were established, and detailed observations of the Sun, Moon, and planets were undertaken. Download high resolution version (500x683, 94 KB)Picture taken by Zereshk from old manuscript of Qotbeddin Shirazis treatise. ... Download high resolution version (500x683, 94 KB)Picture taken by Zereshk from old manuscript of Qotbeddin Shirazis treatise. ... Photo taken from medieval manuscript by Qotbeddin Shirazi. ... Abu Jafar al-Mamun ibn Harun (786 - 833) (المأمون) was an Abbasid caliph who reigned from 813 until his death in 833. ... Damascus at sunset Damascus ( translit: Also commonly: الشام ash-Shām) is the largest city of Syria and is also the capital. ... Baghdad (Arabic ) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate. ... On the earth, a meridian is a north-south line between the North Pole and the South Pole. ... The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. ... Apparent magnitude: up to -12. ... A planet (from the Greek πλανήτης, planetes or wanderers) is a body of considerable mass that orbits a star and that produces very little or no energy through nuclear fusion. ...

In the 10th century, the Buwayhid dynasty encouraged the undertaking of extensive works in Astronomy, such as the construction of a large scale instrument with which observations were made in the year 950CE. We know of this by recordings made in the zij of astronomers such as Ibn al-Alam. The great astronomer Abd Al-Rahman Al Sufi was patronised by prince Adud o-dowleh, who systematically revised Ptolemy's catalogue of stars. Sharaf al-Daula also established a similar observatory in Baghdad. And reports by Ibn Yunus and al-Zarqall in Toledo and Cordoba indicate the use of sophisticated instruments for their time. The Buwayhids or Buyyids or Ä€l-i Buyeh, were a Yazdani tribal confederation from Daylam, a region on the southern shore of the Caspian Sea. ... Al Sufi The constellation Centaurus from The Depiction of Celestial Constellations. ... Adud al-Dowleh was an Emir of the Buwayhid dynasty in Iran. ... A medieval artists rendition of Claudius Ptolemaeus Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek: ; c. ... This article is about the astronomical object. ... Shirdil Abul-Fawaris (c. ... Baghdad (Arabic ) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate. ... Ibn Yunus ( إبن يونوس in Arabic) (full name, Abul-Hasan Ali Ibn Abd al-Rahman Ibn Ahmad Ibn Yunus al-Sadafi) (950?-1009) was an important Arab astronomer/astrologer, whose astronomical works are noted for being ahead of their time, having been based on almost modern-like meticulous calculations and attention... Al-Zarqali (in full Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya Al-Zarqali, rendered as Arzachel in Latin Europe; Azarquiel in Spanish and Italian), (1028–1087 CE), was a leading Arab mathematician and the foremost astronomer of his time. ... Toledo is a city and municipality located in central Spain, about 70 kilometers south of Madrid. ... Location Coordinates : 37° 53’N , 4°46′0″W Time Zone : CET (GMT +1) - summer: CEST (GMT +2) General information Native name Córdoba (Spanish) Spanish name Córdoba Founded 8th century BC Postal code 140xx Website http://www. ...

It was Malik Shah I who established the first large observatory, probably in Isfahan. It was here where Omar Khayyám with many other collaborators constructed a zij and formulated the Persian Solar Calendar a.k.a. the jalali calendar. A modern version of this calendar is still in official use in Iran today. Jalal ad-Dawlah Malik Shah was the Seljuk sultan from 1072 to 1092. ... Part of Shah Abbas large urban project in his new capital, the Chahār Bāgh Four Gardens, is a four-kilometer avenue in the city of Isfahan. ... Omar Khayyám, Persian عمر خیام (born: May 31, 1048 in Nishapur, Iran (Persia) – died: December 4, 1131), was a Persian poet, mathematician and astronomer. ... The Iranian calendar (Persian: ‎) also known as Persian calendar or the Jalāli Calendar is a solar calendar currently used in Iran and Afghanistan. ...

The most influential observatory was however founded by Hulegu Khan during the 13th century. Here, Nasir al-Din al-Tusi supervised its technical construction at Maragha. The facility contained resting quarters for Hulagu Khan, as well as a library and mosque. Some of the top astronomers of the day gathered there, and from their collaboration resulted important modifications to the Ptolemaic system over a period of 50 years. Hulagu Khan (also known as Hülegü, and Hulegu) (1217–8 February 1265) was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of Southwest Asia. ... Nasir Tusi or Abu Jafar Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274, near Baghdad) was a Persian scientist, of Shia islamic belief, born in Tus, Khorasan (then Persia, present time Iran). ... Maragheh or Maraghah is a town in the East Azarbaijan Province of Iran, on the Safi River. ... Hulagu Khan (also known as Hülegü, and Hulegu) (1217 – 8 February 1265) was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of Southwest Asia. ... Mediaeval drawing of the Ptolemaic system. ...

Ulugh Beg, founder of a large Islamic observatory, honoured on this Soviet stamp.

In 1420, prince Ulugh Beg, himself an astronomer and mathematician, founded another large observatory in Samarkand, the remains of which were excavated in 1908 by Russian teams. Image File history File links Ulugh Beg, Astronomer and last great ruler of the Timurids, comemmorated on Soviet stamp File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Ulugh Beg, Astronomer and last great ruler of the Timurids, comemmorated on Soviet stamp File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Ulugh Beg, here depicted on a Soviet stamp, was one of Islams greatest astronomers during the Middle Ages. ... Soviet redirects here. ... Ulugh Beg, here depicted on a Soviet stamp, was one of Islams greatest astronomers during the Middle Ages. ... Samarkand (Tajik: Самарқанд, Persian: ‎ , Uzbek: , Russian: ), population 412,300 in 2005, is the second-largest city in Uzbekistan and the capital of Samarqand Province. ...

And finally, Taqi al-din bin Ma'ruf founded a large observatory in Istanbul in 1575, which was on the same scale as those in Maragha and Samarkand. Istanbul (Turkish: Ä°stanbul, Greek: , historically known in English as Constantinople; see other names) is Turkeys most populous city, and its cultural and financial center. ...

In modern times, Turkey [2][3]has many well equipped observatories, while Jordan [4], Palestine [5], Lebanon [6], UAE [7], Tunisia [8], and other Arab states are also active as well. Iran has modern facilities at Shiraz University and Tabriz University. In Dec 2005, Physics Today reported of Iranian plans to construct a "world class" facility with a 2.0 m telescope observatory in the near future.[9] The Holy Land or Palestine Showing not only the Old Kingdoms of Judea and Israel but also the 12 Tribes Distinctly, and Confirming Even the Diversity of the Locations of their Ancient Positions and Doing So as the Holy Scriptures Indicate, a geographic map from the studio of Tobiae Conradi... UAE redirects here; for other uses of that term, see UAE (disambiguation) The United Arab Emirates is an oil-rich country situated in the south-east of the Arabian Peninsula in Southwest Asia, comprising seven emirates: Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah and Umm al-Quwain. ... Shiraz University of Medical Sciences is a well established medical school of Iran that even admits foreign students. ... External links Official website of University of Tabriz List of chancellors of University of tabriz Categories: University stubs | Iranian universities ... Physics Today magazine, created in 1948, is the flagship publication of The American Institute of Physics. ...

Instruments

Our knowledge of the instruments used by Muslim astronomers primarily comes from two sources. First the remaining instruments in private and museum collections today, and second the treatises and manuscripts preserved from the middle ages.

Muslims made many improvements to instruments already in use before their time, such as adding new scales or details. Their contributions to astronomical instrumentation are abundant.

Celestial globes and armillary spheres

Celestial globes were used primarily for solving problems in celestial astronomy. Today, 126 such instruments remain worldwide, the oldest from the 11th century. The altitude of the sun, or the Right Ascension and Declination of stars could be calculated with these by inputting the location of the observer on the meridian ring of the globe. Chinese history, astronomers have created celestial globes to assist the observation of the stars. ... Equatorial Coordinates Right ascension (abbrev. ... In astronomy, declination (abbrev. ...

An armillary sphere had similar applications. No early Islamic armillary spheres survive, but several treatises on “the instrument with the rings” were written. In this context there is also an Islamic development, the spherical astrolabe, of which only one complete instrument, from the 14th century, has survived. Armillary sphere An armillary sphere (variations known as a spherical astrolabe, armilla, or armil) is a model of the celestial sphere, invented by the ancient Greek Eratosthenes in 255 BC. Its name comes from the Latin armilla (circle, bracelet), since it has a skeleton made of graduated metal circles linking... A 16th century astrolabe. ...

Astrolabes

An 18th century Persian Astrolabe, kept at The Whipple Museum of the History of Science in Cambridge, England.

Brass astrolabes were developed in much of the Islamic world, chiefly as an aid to finding the qibla. The earliest known example is dated 315 (in the Islamic calendar, corresponding to 927-8CE). The first person credited for building the Astrolabe in the Islamic world is reportedly Fazari (Richard Nelson Frye: Golden Age of Persia. p163). He only improved it though, the Greeks had already invented astrolabes to chart the stars. The Arabs then took it during the Abbasid Dynasty and perfected it to be used to find the beginning of Ramadan, the hours of prayer, and the direction of Mecca. Download high resolution version (1061x972, 333 KB)An 18th Century Persian astrolabe - maker unknown. ... Download high resolution version (1061x972, 333 KB)An 18th Century Persian astrolabe - maker unknown. ... The Whipple Museum of the History of Science, founded in 1944, is the science museum of the University of Cambridge. ... Geography Status City (1951) Region East of England Admin. ... A 16th century astrolabe. ... Islam (Arabic: ; ( ▶ (help· info)), the submission to God) is a monotheistic faith, one of the Abrahamic religions and the worlds second-largest religion. ... Facing the Qibla at a prayer in Damascus The geometrical calculation of Qibla Qibla () is an Arabic word for the direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays. ... The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar (Arabic: التقويم الهجري; at-taqwīm al-hijrī; Persian: تقویم هجری قمری Gāhshomāri-ye Hejri; also called the Hijri calendar) is the calendar used to date events in many predominantly Muslim countries, and used by Muslims everywhere to determine the proper day on which to celebrate Islamic... Abu abdallah Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Fazari was a Persian philosopher and mathematician. ... Richard Nelson Frye (c. ...

The instruments were used to read the rise of the time of rise of the Sun and fixed stars. al-Zarqall of Andalusia constructed one such instrument in which, unlike its predecessors, did not depend on the latitude of the observer, and could be used anywhere. This instrument became known in Europe as the Saphaea. The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. ... Al-Zarqali (in full Abu Ishaq Ibrahim ibn Yahya Al-Zarqali, rendered as Arzachel in Latin Europe; Azarquiel in Spanish and Italian), (1028–1087 CE), was a leading Arab mathematician and the foremost astronomer of his time. ... Motto: Andalucía por sí, para España y la humanidad (Andalusia by herself, for Spain, and for humankind) Capital Seville Official language(s) Spanish Area  â€“ Total  â€“ % of Spain Ranked 2nd  87,268 km²  17. ...

Sundials

Muslims made several important improvements to the theory and construction of sundials, which they inherited from their Indian and Greek predecessors. Khwarizmi made tables for these instruments which considerably shortened the time needed to make specific calculations. Wall sundial-a vertical direct south dial Wall sundial in Warsaws Old Town- a vertical south west decliner dial A sundial is a device that measures time by the position of the Sun. ... Soviet postage stamp commemorating the 1200th anniversary of Muhammad al‑Khwarizmi in 1983. ...

Sundials were frequently placed on mosques to determine the time of prayer. One of the most striking examples was built in the 14th century by the muwaqqit (timekeeper) of the Umayyid Mosque in Damascus, ibn al-Shatir.^[7] Damascus at sunset Damascus ( translit: Also commonly: الشام ash-Shām) is the largest city of Syria and is also the capital. ... Ibn al-Shatir (or Ibn ash-Shatir) (1304–1375) was a Muslim astronomer of Damascus. ...

Quadrants

Several forms of quadrants were invented by Muslims. Among them was the sine quadrant used for astronomical calculations and various forms of the horary quadrant, used to determine time (especially the times of prayer) by observations of the Sun or stars. A center of the development of quadrants was ninth-century Baghdad.^[8] Look up Quadrant on Wiktionary, the free dictionary Quadrant can mean: HMS Quadrant (G11), a WW-II British/Australian warship. ... Baghdad (Arabic ) is the capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate. ...

Equatorium

The Equatorium is an Islamic invention from Andalusia. The earliest known was probably made around 1015 CE. It is a mechanical device for finding the positions of the Moon, Sun, and planets, without calculation using a geometrical model to represent the celestial body's mean and anomalistic position. An Equatorium (plural Equatoria) was a medieval astrometic device used by astronomers. ... Motto: Andalucía por sí, para España y la humanidad (Andalusia by herself, for Spain, and for humankind) Capital Seville Official language(s) Spanish Area  â€“ Total  â€“ % of Spain Ranked 2nd  87,268 km²  17. ... Apparent magnitude: up to -12. ... The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. ... The eight planets and three dwarf planets of the Solar System. ... See lists of astronomical objects for a list of the various lists of astronomical objects in Wikipedia. ...

Muslim astronomers

Main article: Muslim astronomers

Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ...

Famous Muslim astronomy books

• al-Khwarizmi (c. 830), Zij al-Sindhind
• al-Farghani (d. c. 850), Kitab fi Jawami Ilm al-Nujum

Notes

1. ^ Dallal (1999), pg. 162
2. ^ This book is not related to al-Kwarizmi's Zij al-Sindh
3. ^ Dallal (1999), pg. 162
4. ^ Dallal (1999), pg. 163
5. ^ Dallal (1999), pg. 164
6. ^ Dallal (1999), pg. 171
7. ^ David A. King, "Islamic Astronomy," pp. 168-9.
8. ^ David A. King, "Islamic Astronomy," pp. 167-8.

References

• Abdulhak Adnan, La science chez les Turcs ottomans, Paris, 1939.
• Antoine Gautier, L'âge d'or de l'astronomie ottomane, in L'Astronomie, (Monthly magazine created by Camille Flammarion in 1882), december 2005, volume 119.
• David A. King: "Islamic Astronomy", in Astronomy before the telescope, ed. Christopher Walker. British Museum Press, (1999), pp. 143-174. ISBN 0-7141-2733-7
• Donald R. Hill, Islamic Science And Engineering, Edinburgh University Press (1993), ISBN 0-7486-0455-3
• Esposito, John L.; Dallal (1999). The Oxford History of Islam. New York: Oxford University Press. 

Camille Flammarion Camille Flammarion (February 26, 1842 – June 3, 1925) was a French astronomer and author. ... Professor John Esposito John Louis Esposito (born 19 May 1940, Brooklyn, New York City) is a professor of International Affairs and Islamic Studies at Georgetown University. ... Oxford University Press (OUP) is a highly-respected publishing house and a department of the University of Oxford in England. ...

See also

• Islam
• Golden Age of Islam
• History of astronomy
• Hebrew astronomy
• List of Iranian scientists
• List of Muslim scientists
• Islamic astrology
• Arab and Persian astrology

Islam (Arabic:  ) is a monotheistic religion based upon the teachings of Muhammad, a 7th century Arab religious and political figure. ... Architecture is one of several fields that blossomed during the Golden Age of Islam. ... Astronomy is probably the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious practices of pre-history: vestiges of these are still found in astrology, a discipline long interwoven with astronomy, and not completely different from it until about 1750‑1800 in the Western... Hebrew astronomy refers to any astronomy written in Hebrew or by Hebrew speakers, or translated into Hebrew. ... Photo taken from medieval manuscript by Qotbeddin Shirazi. ... Islamic science has been an important part of the history of science and the present day. ... Main articles: Islamic science and astrology Islamic astrology, in Arabic ilm al-nujum or ilm al-falak is the study of the heavens by early Muslims. ... Much of the survival of classical sciences like astronomy, mathematics, geography and philosophy in the Western world is due to the fact that it was preserved and used by the Arab world from about the 8th Century, when Europe was going through its Dark Ages. ...

External links

• "Tubitak Turkish National Observatory Antalya"
• "Scientific American" article on Islamic Astronomy
• The Arab Union for Astronomy and Space Sciences (AUASS)
• King Abdul Aziz Observatory
• History of Islamic Astrolabes