Jurij Vega
Baron Jurij Vega, portrait by Matej Sternen
Born
March 23, 1754; Zagorica near Dolsko, Slovenia
Died
September 26, 1802; Nussdorf near Vienna, Austria

Baron Jurij Bartolomej Vega (also correct Veha; official Latin Georgius Bartholomaei Vecha; German Georg Freiherr von Vega) (March 23, 1754 – September 26, 1802) was a Slovenian mathematician, physicist and artillery officer. Download high resolution version (748x1026, 319 KB)Portret of Jurij Vega by Matej Sternen (1870 - 1949) [1] Work is (probably) a property of the University Pittsburg, USA. This work is copyrighted. ... Matej Sternen (1870 – 1949) was a Slovenian painter. ... March 23 is the 82nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (83rd in Leap years). ... 1754 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... September 26 is the 269th day of the year (270th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 96 days remaining. ... --69. ... County BistriÅ£a-Năsăud Status City Mayor MureÅŸan Dumitru , since 2004 Area  km² Population (2000) 12,000 Density  inh/km² Geographical coordinates 47°17 N / 24°26 E Web site http://www. ... Vienna (German: Wien [viːn]; Slovenian: Dunaj, Hungarian: Bécs, Czech: Vídeň, Slovak: Viedeň, Romany Vidnya; Croatian and Serbian: Beč) is the capital of Austria, and also one of the nine States of Austria. ... Spaytans brader Baron is a specific title of nobility or a more generic feudal qualification. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ... March 23 is the 82nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (83rd in Leap years). ... 1754 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... September 26 is the 269th day of the year (270th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 96 days remaining. ... --69. ... This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... A physicist is a scientist trained in physics. ... Historically, artillery refers to any engine used for the discharge of projectiles during war. ... In military organizations, a commissioned officer is a member of the service who derives authority directly from a sovereign power, and as such holds a commission from that power. ...

Early life

Born in the small village of Zagorica, near Dolsko, east of Ljubljana in Slovenia, Jurij was 6 years old when his father Jernej Veha died. Jurij (or George in English) was educated first in Moravče and later in 1767 attended high school for six years in Ljubljana, studying Latin, Greek, religion, German, history, geography, science, and mathematics. At that time there were about 500 students there. He was a schoolfellow of Anton Tomaž Linhart, a Slovenian writer and historian. Jurij completed high school when he was 19, in 1773. After completing Lyceum in Ljubljana he became a navigational engineer. Tentamen philosophicum, a list of questions for his comprehensive examination, was preserved and is available in the Mathematical Library in Ljubljana. The problems cover logic, algebra, metaphysics, geometry, trigonometry, geodesy, stereometry, geometry of curves, ballistics, and general and special physics. Tromostovje (Tromostovje) and Franciscan church (FrančiÅ¡kanska cerkev) in baroque style in the back Ljubljana (IPA ), German Laibach (), Italian Lubiana () is the capital of Slovenia, situated on the outfall of the river Ljubljanica into the Sava, in central Slovenia, between the Alps and the Mediterranean. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... 1767 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to: History History studies the past in human terms. ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Science For the scientific journal named Science, see Science (journal). ... Mathematics is often defined as the study of topics such as quantity, structure, space, and change. ... Anton Tomaž Linhart (December 11, 1756 - July 14, 1795) was a Slovene dramatist and historian, best known as the author of first Slovene comedy, the Županova Micka. ... 1773 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... A lyceum can be an educational institution (often a school of secondary education in Europe), or a public hall used for cultural events like concerts. ... Logic, from Classical Greek λόγος (logos), originally meaning the word, or what is spoken, (but coming to mean thought or reason) is most often said to be the study of arguments, although the exact definition of logic is a matter of controversy among philosophers. ... Algebra is a branch of mathematics which studies structure and quantity. ... Metaphysics (Greek words meta = after/beyond and physics = nature) is a branch of philosophy concerned with the study of first principles and being (ontology). ... Geometry (Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth, metria = measure) arose as the field of knowledge dealing with spatial relationships. ... Trigonometry (from the Greek trigonon = three angles and metro = measure) is a branch of mathematics dealing with angles, triangles and trigonometric functions such as sine, cosine and tangent. ... It has been suggested that geodetic system be merged into this article or section. ... In mathematics, solid geometry was the traditional name for the geometry of three-dimensional Euclidean space — for practical purposes the kind of space we live in. ... Geometry (Greek γεωμετρία; geo = earth, metria = measure) arose as the field of knowledge dealing with spatial relationships. ... In mathematics, the concept of a curve tries to capture the intuitive idea of a geometrical one-dimensional and continuous object. ... A ballistic body is a body which is free to move, behave, and be modified in appearance, contour, or texture by ambient conditions, substances, or forces, as by the pressure of gases in a gun, by rifling in a barrel, by gravity, by temperature, or by air particles. ... A black hole concept drawing by NASA. Physics (from the Greek, φυσικός (physikos), natural, and φύσις (physis), nature) is the science of the natural world dealing with the fundamental constituents of the universe, the forces they exert on one another, and the results produced by these forces. ...

Military service

Jurij left Ljubljana five years after graduation and entered military service in 1780 as Professor of Mathematics at the Artillery School in Vienna. At that time he started to sign his last name as Vega and no longer Veha. When Jurij was 33 he married Josefa Svoboda (Jožefa Swoboda) (1771–1800), a Czech noble from Ceske Budejovice who was 16 at that time. 1780 was a leap year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... 1771 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... -1... The title given to this article is incorrect due to technical limitations. ...

Vega participated in several wars. In 1788 he served under Austrian Imperial Field-Marshal Gideon Ernst Laudon (1717–1790) in a campaign against the Turks at Belgrade. His command of several mortar batteries contributed considerably to the fall of the Belgrade fortress. Between 1793 and 1797 he fought French Revolutionaries under the command of Austrian General Dagobert-Sigismond de Wurmser (1724–1797) with the European coalition on the Austrian side. He fought at Fort Louis, Mannheim, Mainz, Wiesbaden, Kehl, and Dietz. In 1795 he had two 30-pound (14 kilogram) mortars cast, with conically drilled bases and a greater charge, for a firing range up to 3000 m (3300 yards). The old 60 lb (27 kg) mortars had a range of only 1800 m (2000 yd). 1788 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... // Events January 4 — The Netherlands, Britain & France sign Triple Alliance February 26-March 6 What is now the northeastern United States was paralyzed by a series of blizzards that buried the region. ... 1790 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... [[Image:|Location of Belgrade]] Mayor Nenad Bogdanović Area 359. ... US soldier firing an M224 60-mm mortar. ... 1793 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... 1797 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... The French Revolution (1789-1799) was a period in the history of France. ... Events January 14 - King Philip V of Spain abdicates the throne February 20 - The premiere of Giulio Cesare, an Italian opera by George Frideric Handel, takes place in London June 23 - Treaty of Constantinople signed. ... 1797 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Basic information Country: Germany Federal state: Land Baden-Württemberg Regions: Rhein-Neckar District: Independent municipality Population: 324,787 (Mai 2005) Additional information Area: 144. ... Mainz (French: Mayence) is a city in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. ... Wiesbaden is a city in central Germany. ... Kehl is a town in southwestern Germany in the Ortenaukreis, Baden-Württemberg. ... Ferdinand Dietz (1709 - 1777), German sculpture Frederick Charles Dietz (1888 -), US histiorian Hendrik Casimir II of Nassau-Dietz Howard Dietz Robert S. Dietz Thomas Dietz See also Diez, Tietz This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... 1795 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Officially the pound is the name for at least three different units of mass: The pound (avoirdupois). ... The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... The metre (Commonwealth English) or meter (American English) (symbol: m) is the SI base unit of length. ... This article is about the unit of measure known as the yard. ...

In September 1802 Jurij Vega was reported missing. After a few days' search his body was found. The police report concluded that it was an accident. However, the true cause of his death remains a mystery, but it is believed that he died on September 26, 1802 in Nussdorf upon Danube near the Austrian capital, Vienna. --69. ... September 26 is the 269th day of the year (270th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 96 days remaining. ... --69. ... County BistriÅ£a-Năsăud Status City Mayor MureÅŸan Dumitru , since 2004 Area  km² Population (2000) 12,000 Density  inh/km² Geographical coordinates 47°17 N / 24°26 E Web site http://www. ... The Danube (German: , Slovak: Dunaj, Hungarian: , Croatian: Dunav, Serbian: Дунав/Dunav, Bulgarian: Дунав, Romanian: , Ukrainian: , Latin: Danuvius) is Europes second-longest river (after the Volga). ... Vienna (German: Wien [viːn]; Slovenian: Dunaj, Hungarian: Bécs, Czech: Vídeň, Slovak: Viedeň, Romany Vidnya; Croatian and Serbian: Beč) is the capital of Austria, and also one of the nine States of Austria. ...

Mathematical accomplishments

Vega published a series of books of logarithm tables. The first one appeared in 1783. Much later, in 1797 it was followed by a second volume that contained a collection of integrals and other useful formulae. His Handbook, which was originally published in 1793, was later translated into several languages and appeared in over 100 issues. His major work was Zakladnica vseh logaritmov (Thesaurus Logarithmorum Completus or Treasury of all Logarithms) that was first published 1794 in Leipzig. An engineer, Franc Allmer, honourable senator of the Technical university of Graz, has found Vega's logarithmic tables with 10 decimal places in the Museum of Carl Friedrich Gauss in Göttingen. Gauss used this work frequently and he has written in it several calculations. Gauss has also found some of Vega's errors in the calculations in the range of numbers, of which there are more than a million. A copy of Vega's Thesaurus belonging to the private collection of the British mathematician and computing pioneer Charles Babbage (1791-1871) is preserved at the Royal Observatory, Edinburgh. Logarithms to various bases: is to base e, is to base 10, and is to base 1. ... 1783 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... 1797 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Thesaurus Logarithmorum Completus, a large logarithm table handbook, was the main work of Slovenian mathematician Jurij Vega. ... 1794 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Leipzig â–¶(?) [] (Sorbian/Lusatian: Lipsk) is the largest city in the federal state (Bundesland) of Saxony in Germany. ... The Graz Schlossberg Clock Tower Graz [graːts] (Slovenian: Gradec IPA: /gra. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with decimal representation. ... Landmark Gänseliesel fountain at the main market Göttingen ( â–¶) is a city in Lower Saxony, Germany. ... Carl Friedrich Gauss (Gauß) (April 30, 1777 – February 23, 1855) was a German mathematician and scientist of profound genius who contributed significantly to many fields, including number theory, analysis, differential geometry, geodesy, magnetism, astronomy and optics. ... Charles Babbage Charles Babbage (December 26, 1791 – October 18, 1871) was an English mathematician, analytical philosopher, mechanical engineer and (proto-) computer scientist who originated the idea of a programmable computer. ... The Royal Observatory, Edinburgh (ROE) is located on Blackford Hill in the south of the city of Edinburgh. ...

Over the years Vega wrote a four volume textbook Vorlesungen über die Mathematik (Lectures about Mathematics). Volume I appeared in 1782 when he was 28 years old, Volume II in 1784, Volume III in 1788 and Volume IV in 1800. His textbooks also contain interesting tables: for instance, in Volume II one can find closed form expressions for sines of multiples of 3 degrees, written in a form easy to work with. 1782 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... 1784 was a leap year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Exact constant expressions for trigonometric expressions are sometimes useful, mainly for simplifying solutions into radical forms which allow further simplification. ...

Vega wrote at least six scientific papers. On August 20, 1789 Vega achieved a world record when he calculated pi to 140 decimal places, of which the first 126 were correct. This calculation he proposed to the Russian Academy of Sciences in Saint Petersburg (Санкт Петербург) in the booklet V. razprava (The fifth discussion), where he had found with his calculating method an error on the 113th place from the estimation of Thomas Fantet de Lagny (1660–1734) from 1719 of 127 places. Vega retained his record 52 years until 1841 and his method is mentioned still today. His article was not published by the Academy until six years later, in 1795. Vega had improved John Machin's formula from 1706: August 20 is the 232nd day of the year (233rd in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1789 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Lower-case pi The mathematical constant Ï€ is a real number which may be defined as the ratio of a circles circumference (Greek περιφέρεια, periphery) to its diameter in Euclidean geometry, and which is in common use in mathematics, physics, and engineering. ... Russian Academy of Sciences: main building Russian Academy of Sciences (Росси́йская Акаде́мия Нау́к) is the national academy of Russia. ... Saint Petersburg (Russian: Санкт-Петербу́рг, English transliteration: Sankt-Peterburg), colloquially known as Питер (transliterated Piter), formerly known as Leningrad (Ленингра́д, 1924–1991) and Petrograd (Петрогра́д, 1914–1924), is a city located in Northwestern Russia on the delta of the river Neva at the east end of the Gulf of Finland... Events Expulsion of the Carib indigenous people from Martinique by French occupying forces. ... Events January 8 - Premiere of George Frideric Handels opera Ariodante at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden. ... // Events January 23 - The Principality of Liechtenstein is created within the Holy Roman Empire April 25 - Daniel Defoe publishes Robinson Crusoe June 10 - Battle of Glen Shiel Prussia conducts Europes first systematic census Miners in Falun, Sweden find an apparently petrified body of Fet-Mats Israelsson in an unused... take you to calendar). ... John Machin, (1680—June 9, 1751), a professor of astronomy in London, is best known for developing a quickly converging series for Ï€ in 1706 and using it to compute Ï€ to 100 decimal places. ... Events March 27 - Concluding that Emperor Iyasus I of Ethiopia had abdicated by retiring to a monastery, a council of high officials appoint Tekle Haymanot I Emperor of Ethiopia May 23 - Battle of Ramillies September 7 - The Battle of Turin in the War of Spanish Succession - forces of Austria and...

with his formula, which is equal to Euler's formula from 1755: To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... 1755 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ...

and which converges faster than Machin's formula. He had checked his result with the similar Hutton's formula:

He had developed the second term in the series only once.

 Japanese mathematicians of that time had used two approximations : 

π = 3; {22/7}; {333/106}; {355/113}; {103993/33102}; {104348/33215}; {208341/66317}; {312689/99532}; {833719/265381}; {1146408/364913};

= [3;7,15,1,292,1,1,1,2,1,4] = {5419351/1725033}

= 3.14159265358981538324194377730744861

and

π = 3; {22/7}; {333/106}; {355/113}; {1043/ 332}; {304911/97057}; {305954/97389}; {610865/194446}; {916819/291835}; {4278141/1361786}; {5194960/1653621}; {14668061/4669028}; {19863021/6322649}; {34531082/10991677}; {503298169/160206127}; {15133476152/4817175487}; {30770250473/9794557101}; {599768235139/190913760406}; {630538485612/200708317507}; {1230306720751/391622077913}; {14163912413873/4508551174550}; {15394219134624/4900173252463}; {60346569817745/19209070931939}; {75740788952369/24109244184402}; {136087358770114/43318315116341}; {211828147722483/67427559300743}; {347915506492597/110745874417084};

= [3;7,15,1,2,292,1,1,1,4,1,2,1,1,14,30,2,19,1,1,11,1,3,1,1,1,1,3] = {1255574667200274/399665182551995}

= 3.14156629602561954577603945201650090

which were found in the same manner as John Wallis' method from 1655 with the development in the infinite continued fraction: the first approximation is the sixth even approximation of the infinite continued fraction for π and the second varies from the first in the ninth term. Both approximations differ in the 13th place. Among these Japanese mathematicians were presumably Shinsuke Seki Kowa, named also Takakazu (1640–1708) who in 1700 had found 10 places, Takebe Hikojiro Katahiro Kenko (1664–1739) who in 1722 had found 42 (41 correct) places of π, Kamata Yoshikiyo (1678–1744) who in 1730 found 25 places and Matsunaga Yoshisuke Ryohitsu, (circa 1639–1744) who in 1739 had found 51 places of π with the same method as Isaac Newton in 1665 with a series arcsin (1/2) = π/6: John Wallis John Wallis (November 22, 1616 - October 28, 1703) was an English mathematician who is given partial credit for the development of modern calculus. ... Events May 10 - English troops land on Jamaica March 25 - Saturns largest moon, Titan, is discovered by Christian Huygens. ... In mathematics, a continued fraction is an expression such as where a0 is some integer and all the other numbers an are positive integers. ... Events December 1 - Portugal regains its independence from Spain and João IV of Portugal becomes king. ... // Events March 23 - James Francis Edward Stuart lands at the Firth of Forth July 1 - Tewoflos becomes Emperor of Ethiopia September 28 - Peter the Great defeats the Swedes at the Battle of Lesnaya Kandahar conquered by Mir Wais In Masuria one third of the population die during the plague J... Events January 1 - Russia accepts Julian calendar. ... Events March 12 - New Jersey becomes a colony of England. ... Events January 1 - Bouvet Island is discovered by French explorer Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier. ... Events Abraham De Moivre states De Moivres theorem connecting trigonometric functions and complex numbers Publication of the first book of Bachs Well-Tempered Clavier Fall of Persias Safavid dynasty during a bloody revolt of the Afghani people. ... Events August 10 - Treaty of Nijmegen ends the Dutch War. ... // Events The third French and Indian War, known as King Georges War, breaks out at Port Royal, Nova Scotia The First Saudi State founded by Mohammed Ibn Saud Prague occupied by Prussian armies Ongoing events War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) Births January 10 - Thomas Mifflin, fifth President... Events Pope Clement XII elected September 17 - Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Ahmed III (1703-1730) to Mahmud I (1730-1754) Anna Ivanova (Anna I of Russia) became czarina Births April 16 - Henry Clinton, British general (d. ... Events January 14 - Connecticuts first constitution, the Fundamental Orders, is adopted. ... // Events The third French and Indian War, known as King Georges War, breaks out at Port Royal, Nova Scotia The First Saudi State founded by Mohammed Ibn Saud Prague occupied by Prussian armies Ongoing events War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) Births January 10 - Thomas Mifflin, fifth President... Sir Isaac Newton, PRS (4 January [O.S. 25 December 1642] 1643 – 31 March [O.S. 20 March] 1727) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, alchemist, inventor and natural philosopher who is regarded by many as the most influential scientist in history. ... Events March 4 - Start of the Second Anglo-Dutch War. ...

π = 3 ( 1+{1² / (4 · 6)}+{1² · 3² / (4 · 6 · 8 · 10)} + {1² · 3² · 5² / ( 4 · 6 · 8 · 10 · 12 · 14)} + {1² · 3² · 5² · 7² / (4 · 6 · 8 · 10 · 12 · 14 · 16 · 18) } + ...),

where for such precision one has to take about 140 terms. First approximations of infinite continued fractions of this series are:

π₁ = [3];

π₂ = [3;8];

π₃ = [3;7,5,4,4];

π₄ = [3;7,11,1,5,1,1,3,9];

π₅ = [3;7,15,51,7,1,1,1,3,3,2];

π₆ = [3;7,15,1,3,1,8,1,1,32,1,14,1,5,1,7];

π₇ = [3;7,15,1,21,2,7,1,1,1,11,1,1,1,1,1,5,1,3,1,2,2,24];

π₈ = [3;7,15,1,82,1,1,4,5,1,1,1,12,1,6,3,1,6,1,2,3,2];

His method of calculating π is still mentioned today. Although he worked in the subjects of ballistics, physics and astronomy, his major contributions are to the mathematics of the second half of the 18th century. Astrology: the study of the positions of the celestial objects relative to the Earth and how these positions affect happenings on the lives of cultures, nations and the natural environment. ... (17th century - 18th century - 19th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 18th century refers to the century that lasted from 1701 through 1800. ...

In 1781 Vega tried to push further his idea in the Austrian Habsburg monarchy about the usage of the decimal metric system of units. His idea was not accepted, but it was introduced later under the emperor Franz Josef I in 1871. 1781 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Flag of the Habsburg Monarchy; also used as the flag of the Austrian Empire until the Ausgleich of 1867. ... The International System of Units (abbreviated SI from the French language name Système International dUnités) is the modern form of the metric system. ... Franz Joseph I Franz Joseph (in English also Francis Joseph) (August 18, 1830 - November 21, 1916) of the Habsburg Dynasty was Emperor of Austria and King of Bohemia from 1848 until 1916 and King of Hungary from 1867 until 1916. ... 1871 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ...

Jurij Vega was a member of the Academy of Practical Sciences in Mainz, the Physical and Mathematical Society of Erfurt, the Bohemian Scientific Society in Prague, and the Prussian Academy of Sciences in Berlin. He was also an associate member of the British Scientific Society in Göttingen. He was awarded the Order of Maria Theresa on May 11, 1796. In 1800 Jurij Vega obtained a title of hereditary baron including the right to his own coat of arms. Map of Germany showing Erfurt Mariendom and the Severikirche Erfurt [ˈɛrfÊŠrt] is a city in central Germany. ... Prague (Czech: Praha, German: Prag, see also other names) is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Landmark Gänseliesel fountain at the main market Göttingen ( â–¶) is a city in Lower Saxony, Germany. ... H.I.M. Maria Theresa, Holy Roman Empress, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia, Archduchess of Austria, Great Principess of Transylvania, Duchess of Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla // Personal life Family Her Imperial and Royal Highness Maria Theresa, Princess Imperial and Archduchess of Austria, Princess Royal of Hungary and Bohemia was the... May 11 is the 131st day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (132nd in leap years). ... 1796 was a leap year starting on Friday. ... -1...

The Slovenian PTT has issued a stamp honouring Jurij Vega and the National Bank of Slovenia has issued a 50 Tolar banknote in his honour. The tolar has been the currency of Slovenia since October 1991. ...

See also

• Logarithm
• Mathematical table
• Pi
• Ballistics
• Vega (crater)

Logarithms to various bases: is to base e, is to base 10, and is to base 1. ... Before calculators were cheap and plentiful, people would use mathematical tables —lists of numbers showing the results of calculation with varying variables— to simplify and drastically speed up computation. ... Lower-case pi The mathematical constant Ï€ is a real number which may be defined as the ratio of a circles circumference (Greek περιφέρεια, periphery) to its diameter in Euclidean geometry, and which is in common use in mathematics, physics, and engineering. ... A ballistic body is a body which is free to move, behave, and be modified in appearance, contour, or texture by ambient conditions, substances, or forces, as by the pressure of gases in a gun, by rifling in a barrel, by gravity, by temperature, or by air particles. ... Vega is an eroded lunar crater that is located in the southeastern part of the Moon, named after Slovene mathematician Jurij Vega. ...

External links

• University of St Andrews' page on Vega: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Vega.html
• Vega and his time

The University of St Andrews was founded between 1410 and 1413 and is the oldest university in Scotland (and third oldest in the English speaking world after Oxford and Cambridge ). The university is situated in the Royal Burgh of St Andrews, on the east coast of Scotland. ...