Kava (Piper methysticum) (Piper Latin for "pepper", methysticum Greek for "intoxicating") is an ancient crop of the western Pacific. Other names for kava include ʻawa (Hawaii), 'ava (Samoa), yaqona (Fiji), and sakau (Pohnpei). The word kava is used to refer both to the plant and the beverage produced from it. In some parts of the Western World, kava extract is marketed as herbal medicine against stress and anxiety. Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 450 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1224 × 1632 pixel, file size: 1. ... Scientific classification or biological classification is a method by which biologists group and categorize species of organisms. ... For other uses, see Plant (disambiguation). ... Classes Magnoliopsida - Dicots Liliopsida - Monocots The flowering plants or angiosperms are the most widespread group of land plants. ... Orders See text. ... Families Aristolochiaceae Hydnoraceae Lactoridaceae Piperaceae Saururaceae The Piperales are an order of flowering plants. ... genera see text Piperaceae is the botanical name for a family of flowering plants. ... Species See text. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Image:Georg Forster masterbator. ... For other meanings of Pacific, see Pacific (disambiguation). ... Official language(s) English, Hawaiian Capital Honolulu Largest city Honolulu Area  Ranked 43rd  - Total 10,931 sq mi (29,311 km²)  - Width n/a miles (n/a km)  - Length 1,522 miles (2,450 km)  - % water 41. ... World Class Surf of Pohnpeis Palikir Pass a. ... The term Western world, the West or the Occident (Latin occidens -sunset, -west, as distinct from the Orient) [1] can have multiple meanings dependent on its context (e. ... The term Herbalism refers to folk and traditional medicinal practice based on the use of plants and plant extracts. ... In medical terms, stress is the disruption of homeostasis through physical or psychological stimuli. ... This article includes a list of works cited or a list of external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ...

Preparation and consumption

Kava root drying in Lovoni village, Ovalau, Fiji

Kava is consumed in various ways throughout the Pacific Ocean cultures of Polynesia, Vanuatu, Melanesia and some parts of Micronesia and Australia. Kava, Kava-Kava! Kava, Kava-kava! Kava, Kava-Kava! Kava, Kava-Kava! HI ANGE!!Traditionally it is prepared by either chewing, grinding or pounding. Chewing is followed by depositing into a bowl, mixing with water and straining through the cloth-like fiber of a coconut tree. Grinding is done by hand against a cone-shaped block of dead coral; the hand forms a mortar and the coral a pestle. The ground root is combined with only a little water, as the fresh root releases moisture during grinding. Pounding is done in a large stone with a small log. The product is then added to cold water and consumed as quickly as possible. Image File history File links Kava_fiji. ... Image File history File links Kava_fiji. ... Ovalau (IPA: []) is the largest island in Fijis Lomaiviti archipelago. ... Carving from the ridgepole of a Māori house, ca 1840 Polynesia (from Greek: πολύς many, νῆσος island) is a large grouping of over 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean. ... Map showing Melanesia. ... Binomial name Cocos nucifera L. Also a song by Harry Nilsson The Coconut Palm (Cocos nucifera), is a member of the Family Arecaceae (palm family). ... Extant Subclasses and Orders Alcyonaria    Alcyonacea    Helioporacea Zoantharia    Antipatharia    Corallimorpharia    Scleractinia    Zoanthidea [1][2]  See Anthozoa for details For other uses, see Coral (disambiguation). ... Mortar has several meanings: Mortar (weapon) fires shells at a much lower velocity and higher ballistic arc than other ordnance Paintball mortar fires paintballs or water balloons filled with paint Mortar (masonry), material used in masonry to fill the gaps between bricks and bind them together Mortar (firestop), hydraulic cementitious... Mortar and pestle A mortar and pestle are two tools used with each other to grind and mix substances. ...

The extract is an emulsion kavalactone droplets in starch. The taste is slightly pungent, while the distinctive aroma depends on whether it was prepared from dry or fresh plant, and on the variety. The colour is grey to tan to opaque greenish. A. Two immisicible liquids, not emulsified; B. An emulsion of Phase B dispersed in Phase A; C. The unstable emulsion progressively separates; D. The surfactant (purple outline) positions itself on the interfaces between Phase A and Phase B, stabilizing the emulsion An emulsion is a mixture of two immiscible (unblendable...

Kava prepared as described above is much more potent than processed kava. Chewing produces the strongest effect because it produces the finest particles. Various sources incorrectly state that it is because saliva enzymes act on the plant. Fresh, undried kava produces a stronger beverage than old, dry kava. The strength also depends on the species and techniques of cultivation.

Fijians commonly share a drink called "grog", made by pounding sun-dried kava root into a fine powder and mixing it with cold water. Traditionally, grog is drunk from the shorn half-shell of a coconut, called a "bilo." Despite tasting very much like dirty water, grog is very popular in Fiji, especially among young men, and often brings people together for storytelling and socializing.^[1]

Kava root being prepared for consumption in Asanvari village on Maewo Island, Vanuatu

Image File history File linksMetadata Kava_vanuatu. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Kava_vanuatu. ... Maéwo Maewo (or Maéwo; also Aurora Island) is an island in Vanuatu in Penama province, 105 km to the east of Espiritu Santo. ...

Effects

A moderately potent kava drink causes effects within 20-30 minutes that last for about two and a half hours, but can be felt for up to eight hours.

The sensations, in order of appearance, are slight tongue and lip numbing caused by the contraction of the blood vessels in these areas (the lips and skin surrounding may appear unusually pale); mildly talkative and euphoric behavior; anxiolytic (calming) effects, sense of well-being, clear thinking; and relaxed muscles. Sleep is often restful and there are pronounced periods of sleepiness correlating to the amount and potency of kava consumed. An anxiolytic is a drug prescribed for the treatment of symptoms of anxiety. ...

In Vanuatu, a strong kava drink is normally followed by a hot meal or tea. The meal traditionally follows some time after the drink so that the psychoactives are absorbed into the bloodstream more quickly. A psychoactive drug or psychotropic substance is a chemical that alters brain function, resulting in temporary changes in perception, mood, consciousness, or behaviour. ...

A potent drink results in a faster onset with a lack of stimulation, somnolence, and then deep, dreamless sleep within 30 minutes. Unlike alcohol-induced sleep, after wakening the drinker does not experience any mental or physical after effects. Somnolence (or drowsiness) is a state of near-sleep, a strong desire for sleep, or sleeping for unusually long periods. ... A hangover (veisalgia) describes the sum of unpleasant physiological effects following heavy consumption of drugs and liquor, particularly alcoholic beverages. ...

Heavy consumption can produce effects on the skin, ranging from light, red bumps; to heavy, scaly ulcers. This is an allergic response to antigens that form when lactones in kava bind to skin proteins. The effects disappear if consumption stops or decreases. Excessive drinking can also cause vomiting and nausea that usually subside within a day. An antigen is any molecule that is recognized by antibodies. ... For other uses, see Nausea (disambiguation). ...

It is reported that many people experience rather vivid dreams after drinking kava. [1]

Kava culture

Main article: Kava culture

A sign showing a "Kava license area" at Yirrkala, in the Northern Territory of Australia

Kava is used for medicinal, religious, political, cultural and social purposes throughout the Pacific. These cultures have a great respect for the plant and place a high importance on it. It is used primarily at social gatherings to increase amiability and to relax after work. It has great religious significance, being used to obtain inspiration. In some Westernized Pacific peoples, the drink has been demonized and seen as a vice, and youth there often reject its traditional use. However, it has gained a cult following among the youth culture of caucasian people living on Pacific islands. Kava culture refers to the Polynesian and Melanesian cultures which consume kava, and the religious and cultural traditions associated with it. ... Image File history File links Kava. ... Image File history File links Kava. ... Yirrkala is a well-known indigenous community in Arnhem Land, in the Northern Territory of Australia, at 12. ... Slogan or Nickname: The Territory, The NT, The Top End Motto(s): none Other Australian states and territories Capital Darwin Government Constitutional monarchy Administrator Ted Egan Chief Minister Clare Martin (ALP) Federal representation  - House seats 2  - Senate seats 2 Gross Territorial Product (2004-05)  - Product ($m)  $10,418 (8th)  - Product...

Botany and agronomy

There are several cultivars of kava, with varying concentrations of primary and secondary psychoactive substances. The largest number are grown in the Republic of Vanuatu, and so it is recognised as the "home" of kava. Kava was historically grown only in the Pacific islands of Hawaii, Federated States of Micronesia, Vanuatu, Fiji, the Samoas and Tonga. Some is grown in the Solomon Islands since World war 2, but most is imported. Kava is a cash crop in Vanuatu and Fiji. This Osteospermum Pink Whirls is a successful cultivar. ... German soldiers at the Battle of Stalingrad World War II was the most extensive and costly armed conflict in the history of the world, involving the great majority of the worlds nations, being fought simultaneously in several major theatres, and costing tens of millions of lives. ...

The kava shrub thrives in loose, well-drained soils where plenty of air reaches the roots. It grows naturally where rainfall is plentiful (over 2,000mm/yr). Ideal growing conditions are 20-35 degrees Celsius (70-95 Fahrenheit), and 70-100% relative humidity. Too much sunlight is harmful, especially in early growth, so kava is an understory crop.

Kava cannot reproduce sexually. Female flowers are especially rare and do not produce fruit even when hand-pollinated. Its propagation is entirely due to human efforts by the method of striking.

Traditionally, plants are harvested around 4 years of age, as older plants have higher concentrations of kavalactones. But in the past two decades farmers have been harvesting younger and younger plants, as young as 18 months. After reaching about 2m height, plants grow a wider stalk and additional stalks, but not much taller. The roots can reach 60cm depth. The metre, or meter (symbol: m) is the SI base unit of length. ... // CM, cM, Cm or cm may stand for: CM Apollo Command/Service Module (command module is one half) Cameroon, ISO and FIPS country code category management Catholic Memorial center of mass Championship Manager, a series of association football computer games Chelmsford British post code region CM Chessmaster Chief Minister of...

Composition

Fresh kava root contains on average 80% water. Dried root contains approximately 43% starch, 20% fibers, 15% kavalactones, 12% water, 3.2% sugars, 3.6% proteins, and 3.2% minerals. Kavalactone content is greatest in the roots and decreases higher up the plant. Relative concentrations of 15%, 10% and 5% have been observed in the root, stump, and basal stems, respectively. Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... Starch (CAS# 9005-25-8) is a complex carbohydrate which is insoluble in water; it is used by plants as a way to store excess glucose. ... For the meaning of fiber in nutrition, see dietary fiber. ... Kavalactone is the acive ingredient found in kava. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... This article deals with sugar as food and as an important, widely traded commodity; the word also has other uses; see Sugar (disambiguation) A sugar is a form of carbohydrate; the most commonly used sugar is a white crystalline solid, sucrose; used to alter the flavor and properties (mouthfeel, perservation... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... Minerals are natural compounds formed through geological processes. ...

Basic research on anti-cancer potential

On 15 February 2006, the Fiji Times and Fiji Live reported that researchers at the University of Aberdeen in Scotland and the Laboratoire de Biologie Moleculaire du Cancer in Luxembourg had discovered that kava may treat ovarian cancer and leukemia. Kava compounds inhibited the activation of a nuclear factor that led to the growth of cancer cells. The Aberdeen University researchers published in the journal The South Pacific Journal of Natural Science that kava methanol extracts had been shown to kill leukaemia and ovarian cancer cells in test tubes. The kava compounds were shown to target only cancerous cells but not healthy cells. is the 46th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Fiji Times Online The Fiji Times is a daily newspaper published in Fiji. ... Fiji Live is an online newspaper and business and cultural directory in Fiji. ... The University of Aberdeen was founded in 1495, in Aberdeen, Scotland. ... This article is about the country. ... Ovarian cancer is a malignant tumor (a kind of neoplasm) located on an ovary. ... Leukemia or leukaemia (see spelling differences) is a cancer of the blood or bone marrow and is characterized by an abnormal proliferation (production by multiplication) of blood cells, usually white blood cells (leukocytes). ... Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, carbinol, wood alcohol, wood naptha or wood spirits, is a chemical compound with chemical formula CH3OH. It is the simplest alcohol, and is a light, volatile, colourless, flammable, poisonous liquid with a distinctive odor that is somewhat milder and sweeter than ethanol (ethyl alcohol). ... A test tube (Sometimes culture tube) is a kind of laboratory glassware, composed of a fingerlike length of glass tubing, open at the top, sometimes with a rounded lip at the top, and a rounded U shaped bottom. ...

Fiji Kava Council Chairman Ratu Josateki Nawalowalo welcomed the findings, saying that they would boost the kava industry. For his part, Agriculture Minister Ilaitia Tuisese called on the researchers to help persuade members of European Union to lift their ban on kava imports. Ratu is a title used by Fijians of chiefly rank. ... Ratu Josateki Tuivanuavou Nacagilevu Nawalowalo, commonly known as Ratu Jo Nawalowalo, is a Fijian chief, businessman, and the Chairman of the Kadavu Provincial Council. ... Hon. ...

Pharmacology

Kavas active principal ingredients are the kavalactones, of which at least 15 have been identified and are all considered psychoactive. Only six of them produce noticeable effects, and their concentrations in kava plants vary. Different ratios can produce different effects. Kavalactones are the main psychoactive components of the roots of kava, a shrub common on some Pacific Ocean islands. ...

Kava has been considered relatively safe. Yet, some kava herbal supplements have been accused of contributing to rare but severe hepatotoxic reactions (see section on safety). Kava is not considered to be addictive. It has been suggested that Legal drugs#Kava be merged into this article or section. ... For other uses, see addicted. ...

Pharmacodynamics

Desmethoxyyangonin, one of the six major kavalactones, is a reversible MAO-B inhibitor (Ki 280 nM)^[2] and is able to increase dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens. This finding might correspond to the slightly euphoric action of kava.^[3]
Kavain in both enantiomeric forms inhibit the reuptake of noradrenalin at the transporter (NAT), but not of serotonin (SERT).^[4] An elevated extracellular NA level in the brain may account for the reported enhancement of attention and focus. Kavalactone is the acive ingredient found in kava. ... Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) are a class of antidepressant drugs prescribed for the treatment of depression. ... In chemistry and biochemistry, a dissociation constant or an ionization constant is a specific type of equilibrium constant used for reversible reactions or processes. ... Look up nano- in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The mole (symbol: mol) is the SI base unit that measures an amount of substance. ... Dopamine is a phenethylamine naturally produced by the human body. ... The nucleus accumbens (NAcc), also known as the accumbens nucleus or as the nucleus accumbens septi (Latin for nucleus leaning against the septum), is a collection of neurons located where the head of the caudate and the anterior portion of the putamen meet just lateral to the septum pellucidum. ... Kavalactone is the acive ingredient found in kava. ... In chemistry, enantiomers (from the Greek ἐνάντιος, opposite, and μέρος, part or portion) are stereoisomers that are nonsuperimposable complete mirror images of each other, much as ones left and right hands are the same but opposite. ... Reuptake, or re-uptake, is the reabsorption of a neurotransmitter by the neurotransmitter transporter of a pre-synaptic neuron after it has performed its function of transmitting a neural impulse. ... Norepinephrine, known as noradrenaline outside the USA, is a catecholamine and a phenethylamine with chemical formula C8H11NO3. ... The norepinephrine transporter or NET is a monoamine transporter that transports the neurotransmitter norepinephrine from the synapse back to its vesicles for storage until later use. ... Serotonin (pronounced ) (5-hydroxytryptamine, or 5-HT) is a monoamine neurotransmitter synthesized in serotonergic neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) and enterochromaffin cells in the gastrointestinal tract of animals including humans. ... The serotonin transporter is a monoamine transporter protein. ... In cell biology, molecular biology and related fields, the word extracellular means outside the cell. It is used in contrast to intracellular (inside the cell). ... It has been suggested that Neural mechanisms behind shifts of attention be merged into this article or section. ...

Safety

Incidents and regulation

In the year 2001 concerns were raised about the safety of commercial kava products.^[5] There have been indications^[6][7] of severe liver toxicity, including liver failure in some people who had used dietary supplements containing kava extract. The severity of liver damage consequently prompted action of many regulatory agencies in countries where the legal precautionary principle so mandated. In the UK, the Medicines for Human Use (Kava-kava) (Prohibition) Order 2002 prohibits the sale, supply or import of most derivative medicinal products. Kava is banned in Switzerland, France and The Netherlands^{[citation needed]}. The health agency of Canada issued a stop-sale order for kava in 2002. But legislation in 2004 made the legal status of kava uncertain.^[7] The United States CDC has released a report^[8] expressing reservations about the use of kava and its possibly adverse side effects (specifically severe liver toxicity), as has the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).^[9] The Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration has recommended that no more than 250 mg of kavalactones be taken in a 24 hour period.^[10] According to the Medicines Control Agency in the U.K., there is no safe dose of kava, as there is no way to predict which individuals would have adverse reactions.^[11] However, none of these negative regulatory actions took into account the fact that when kava preparations are made, as traditionally for millennia, with the peeled root of the plant no toxicity is found.^[12] Hepatotoxicity (from hepatic toxicity) is chemical-driven liver damage. ... Motto: Je Maintiendrai (Dutch: Ik zal handhaven, English: I Shall Uphold) Anthem: Wilhelmus van Nassouwe Capital Amsterdam1 Largest city Amsterdam Official language(s) Dutch2 Government Parliamentary democracy Constitutional monarchy  - Queen Beatrix  - Prime minister Jan Peter Balkenende Independence Eighty Years War   - Declared July 26, 1581   - Recognised January 30, 1648 (by Spain... The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta, Georgia, is recognized as the leading United States agency for protecting the public health and safety of people. ... hi “FDA” redirects here. ... The Therapeutic Goods Administration or TGA is the regulatory body for drugs and therapeutic goods in Australia. ...

Toxicology

Piperidine alkaloids from the kava plant

The legal intervention stimulated research, and hepatotoxic substances were found in the plant. Researchers from the University of Hawaii at Manoa found that an alkaloid called pipermethystine (formula 1), contained in stem peelings and leaves, had toxic effects on liver cells in vitro^[13] and in vivo.^[14] In rats fed with 10 mg/kg pipermethystine for two weeks, indications of hepatic toxicity were found. Comparable signs of toxicity were not detected with kava rhizome extracts (100 mg/kg, 2 weeks)^[14], (73 mg/kg, 3 months).^[15] Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Piperidine is an organic compound with the molecular formula C5H11N. It is a heterocyclic amine with a six-membered ring containing five carbon atoms and one nitrogen atom. ... The University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa is a public, co-educational university and is the main campus of the greater University of Hawaiʻi system. ... Chemical structure of ephedrine, a phenethylamine alkaloid An alkaloid is, strictly speaking, a naturally occurring amine produced by a plant,[1] but amines produced by animals and fungi are also called alkaloids. ... Wiktionary has a definition of: In vitro In vitro (Latin: within glass) means within a test tube, or, more generally, outside a living organism or cell. ... In vivo (Latin for (with)in the living). ... Ginger rhizome A rhizome is, in botany, a usually underground, horizontal stem of a plant that often sends out roots and shoots from its nodes. ...

Flavokavain B, found in the plant's rhizome, may also contribute to toxic effects.^[16] And, it is known that some of the kavapyrones block several subtypes of the enzyme cytochrome P450^[17], which can result in adverse interactions with other drugs used concomitantly. Kavalactones are the main psychoactive components of the roots of kava, a shrub common on some Pacific Ocean islands. ... Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ... Cytochrome P450 Oxidase (CYP2E1) Cytochrome P450 oxidase (commonly abbreviated CYP) is a generic term for a large number of related, but distinct, oxidative enzymes (EC 1. ...

The plant also contains glutathione. In extracts its concentration varies depending on the lipophilicity of the applied solvent; the amount is higher in aqueous extracts. Glutathione in kava preparations is able to provide a certain protection of liver cells.^[18] Glutathione (GSH) is a tripeptide. ... ... A solvent is a liquid that dissolves a solid, liquid, or gaseous solute, resulting in a solution. ...

Before 2002, substantial amounts of aerial parts of the kava plant were being exported to North America and Europe and obviously used for the production of commercial prepartions. For traditional use in the South Pacific, stem peelings and leaves are discarded, and only the rhizomes are used and extracted with water. This may explain why native populations that make heavy use of kava experience side effects that are mild, temporary, and confined to the skin, whereas industrialized countries that have newly adopted kava occasionally show severe, acute responses.

Outlook

The issue has long been controversial and the debate fuelled by conflicting economic interests of monopoly-driven pharmaceutical companies, concerned with competition in anti-anxiety drug sales, and kava-exporting nations of the Pacific Islands as well as disagreements between the medical establishment and proponents of herbal and natural medicine. The German Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices (BfArM), which in 2002 temporarily inactivated kava registrations, asked the producers to provide new clinical data by June 2007, in which case a reinstitution of the kava products on the market might again be possible.^[19]

A New Zealand committee from the New Zealand Association of Medical Herbalists that considered the issue commented in its summary: "A comparison with paracetamol-associated hepatotoxicity, results in the conclusion that these potential risks for kava are dramatically less than that of a popular non prescription drug widely sold through grocery outlets."^[20][21] The NZ government is currently only considering requiring a suitable warning label standard to go on kava products.

See also

• Alcohol and Drugs History Society

The Alcohol and Drugs History Society is a scholarly organization whose members study the history of a variety of illegal, regulated, and unregulated drugs such as opium, alcohol, and coffee. ...

References

Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 115th day of the year (116th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 341st day of the year (342nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 191st day of the year (192nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 259th day of the year (260th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 167th day of the year (168th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 191st day of the year (192nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 198th day of the year (199th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 248th day of the year (249th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 132nd day of the year (133rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 132nd day of the year (133rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 132nd day of the year (133rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era. ... is the 248th day of the year (249th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Literature

• Lebot, Vincent et al. "Kava: The Pacific Drug", New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992. ISBN 0-300-05213-8

External links

Wikispecies has information related to:

Piper methysticum

• Farmers Bookshelf - Information on Tropical Crop Production in Hawaiʻi (Site has javascript navigation and kava (ʻawa) pages cannot be directly linked: click on "nutraceuticals", then "'Awa".)
• The Kava culture in Vanuatu
• Kava Ban documents
• Erowid's Kava vault
• How to prepare Kava (Erowid)
• Lycaeum: Includes list of isolated chemicals
• Kava news page
• Hawaiʻi Pacific Islands Kava Festival - An education, cultural event held in Hawaii sponsored by the nonprofit, ʻAwa Development Council
• Kava Kava Research Information Study by Ray Sahelian M.D. on Kava Kava Benefits and Side Effects
• European Kava Forum