Ancient Lothal as envisaged by the Archaeological Survey of India.

Close-up map of Lothal, and neighbouring sites in Gujarat.

Lothal (IPA: /ˈloːtʰəl/; Gujarati: લોથલ—mound of the dead) was one of the most prominent cities of the ancient Indus valley civilization. Located in the modern state of Gujarat and dating from 2400 BC, it is India's most important archaeological site that dates from that era. Lothal's dock—the world's earliest—connected the city to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river on the trade route between Harappan cities in Sindh and the peninsula of Saurashtra when the surrounding Kutch desert of today was a part of the Arabian Sea. It was a vital and thriving trade centre in ancient times, with its trade of beads, gems and valuable ornaments reaching the far corners of West Asia and Africa. Discovered in 1954, Lothal was excavated from February 13, 1955 to May 19, 1960 by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). A major part of the township and dockyard were unearthed. Resuming excavation in 1961, archaeologists unearthed trenches sunk on the northern, eastern and western flanks of the mound, bringing to light the inlet channels and nullah ("ravine", or "gully") connecting the dock with the river. The findings consist of a mound, a township, a marketplace and the dock. Adjacent to the excavated areas stands the Archaeological Museum, where some of the most prominent collections of Indus-era antiquities in modern India are displayed. Image File history File links Lothal_conception. ... Image File history File links Lothal_conception. ... Archaeological Survey of India is an Indian government agency under the Department of Culture that is responsible about archaeological studies and preservation of cultural monuments. ... Image File history File links Lothal_(Small). ... Image File history File links Lothal_(Small). ... Gujarat (Gujarati: , Hindi: ; , IPA ; also spelled Gujrat and sometimes Gujarath) contained many of the former Princely states of India, and is the second-most industrialized state in the Republic of India after Maharashtra. ... The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is a system of phonetic notation devised by linguists to accurately and uniquely represent each of the wide variety of sounds (phones or phonemes) used in spoken human language. ... Gujarati (ગુજરાતી GujarātÄ«; also sometimes Gujrati) is one of the 22 official language and 14 regional languages spoken in India. ... The Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1700 BCE) was an ancient civilization thriving along the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River in what is now Pakistan and Northern India. ... Gujarat (Gujarati: , Hindi: ; , IPA ; also spelled Gujrat and sometimes Gujarath) contained many of the former Princely states of India, and is the second-most industrialized state in the Republic of India after Maharashtra. ... (25th century BC - 24th century BC - 23rd century BC - other centuries) (4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC) // Events 2900–2334 BC -- Mesopotamian wars of the Early Dynastic period. ... Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from the Greek words αρχαίος = ancient and λόγος = word/speech/discourse) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artifacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ... A dock is an area of water between two piers or alongside a pier, forming a chamber used for building or repairing one ship. ... The Sabarmati is a river in Western India. ... Conception of ancient Harappas Mound E Gateway [1] Harappa is a city in Punjab, northeast Pakistan, located beside a former course of the Ravi River; about 35km southwest of Sahiwal. ... Sindh Province (Sind) (Sindhi: سنڌ ;Urdu: سندھ) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and is home to the Sindhis, Muhajirs and various other groups. ... Saurashtra in between Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambat. ... Kutch (also Cutch or Kachh) is a district of Gujarat state in western India. ... Map of the Arabian Sea. ... Look up bead in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... A selection of gemstone pebbles made by tumbling rough rock with abrasive grit, in a rotating drum. ... A map showing Southwest Asia - The term Middle East is more often used to refer to both Southwest Asia and some North African countries Southwest Asia, or West Asia, is the southwestern part of Asia. ... A satellite composite image of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia. ... February 13 is the 44th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1955 (MCMLV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... May 19 is the 139th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (140th in leap years). ... 1960 (MCMLX) was a leap year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1960 calendar). ... Archaeological Survey of India is an Indian government agency under the Department of Culture that is responsible about archaeological studies and preservation of cultural monuments. ... Look up mound on Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The term township generally means the district or area associated with a town. ... A marketplace is the space, actual or metaphorical, in which a market operates. ...

Apart from perfecting the world's earliest dock, Lothal's people were responsible for the earliest-known portrayals of realism in art and sculpture, telling some of the most well-known fables of today. Its scientists used a shell compass and divided the horizon and sky into 8–12 whole parts, possibly pioneering the study of stars and advanced navigation—2000 years before the Greeks. Realism in art and literature is the depiction of subjects as they appear, without embellishment or interpretation. ... Horizon The horizon is the line that separates earth from sky. ...

The techniques and tools they pioneered for bead-making and in metallurgy have stood the test of time for over 4000 years. Lothal is situated near the village of Saragwala in the Dholka taluka of Ahmedabad district. It is at a distance of six kilometres from the Lothal-Bhurkhi railway station on the Ahmedabad-Bhavnagar railway line. It is also connected by all-weather roads to the cities of Ahmedabad (85 km/53 mi), Bhavnagar, Rajkot and Dholka. Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and of materials engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds and their mixtures, which are called alloys. ... Dholka is a town in western India. ... A taluka is an administrative division in India below a district; called tahsil/tehsil in northern India. ... Ahmedabad district is surrounded by Mehsana, Sabarkantha, and Gandhinagar districts to the north, Kheda district to the east, the Gulf of Cambay and Bhavnagar district to the south, and Surendranagar district to the west. ... Ahmedabad (Gujarati: અમદાવાદ) or Ahmadābād is the largest city in Gujarat and the 7th largest city in India, with a population of more than 5. ... Bhavnagar is a city in the Gujarat state of India. ... A kilometre (American spelling: kilometer), symbol: km is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 1000 metres (from the Greek words χίλια (khilia) = thousand and μέτρο (metro) = count/measure). ... A mile is a unit of distance (or, in physics terminology, length) currently defined as 5,280 feet, 1,760 yards, or 63,360 inches. ... Rajkot (2005 pop. ...

Archaeology

Extent and major sites of the Indus Valley Civilization. Also see^[1] for a detailed map

The meaning of Lothal (a combination of Loth and (s) thal) in Gujarati to be the "the mound of the dead" is not unusual, as the name of the city of Mohenjodaro in Sindhi means the same. People in villages neighbouring to Lothal had known of the presence of an ancient town and human remains. As recently as 1850, boats sailed up to the mound, and timber was shipped in 1942 from Broach to Saragwala via the mound. A silted creek connecting modern Bholad with Lothal and Saragwala represents the ancient flow channel of a river or creek.^[2] When India was partitioned in 1947, most of the sites, including Mohenjodaro and Harappa, came to be located in the state of Pakistan. The Archaeological Survey of India undertook a new program of exploration, and excavated many sites across Gujarat. Between 1954 and 1958, more than 50 sites were excavated in the Kutch and Saurashtra peninsulas, extending the limits of Harappan civilization by 500 kilometres (310 mi) to the river Kim, where the Bhagatrav site accesses the valley of the rivers Narmada and Tapti. Lothal stands 270 kilometres (170 mi) from Mohenjodaro, which is in Sindh.^[3] It has also been speculated that owing to the comparatively small dimensions of the main city, Lothal was not a large settlement at all, and its "dock" was perhaps an irrigation tank.^[4] However, the ASI and other contemporary archaeologists assert that the city was a part of a major river system on the trade route of the ancient peoples from Sindh to Saurashtra in Gujarat. Cemeteries have been found which indicate that its people were probably of Dravidian, Proto-Australoid or Mediterranean physiques. Lothal provides with the largest collection of antiquities in the archaeology of modern India.^[5] It is essentially a single culture site—the Harappan culture in all its variances is evidenced. An indigenous micaceous Red Ware culture also existed, which is believed to be autochthonous and pre-Harappan. Two sub-periods of Harappan culture are distinguished: the same period (between 2400 and 1900 BC) is identical to the exuberant culture of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Image File history File links by en:User:Dbachmann see also en:Image:Indus_Map. ... Image File history File links by en:User:Dbachmann see also en:Image:Indus_Map. ... The Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1700 BCE) was an ancient civilization thriving along the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River in what is now Pakistan and Northern India. ... Gujarati (ગુજરાતી GujarātÄ«; also sometimes Gujrati) is one of the 22 official language and 14 regional languages spoken in India. ... Mohenjo-daro (literally, mound of the dead), like Harappa, was a city of the Indus Valley civilization. ... Sindhi (سنڌي، سندھی, सिन्धी) is the language of the Sindh region of South Asia, which is now a province of Pakistan. ... Bharuch (also known as Broach) is a district in south Gujarat state in India. ... Britains holdings on the Indian subcontinent were granted independence in 1947 and 1948, becoming four new independent states: India, Burma (now Myanmar), Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), and Pakistan (including East Pakistan, modern-day Bangladesh). ... Conception of ancient Harappas Mound E Gateway [1] Harappa is a city in Punjab, northeast Pakistan, located beside a former course of the Ravi River; about 35km southwest of Sahiwal. ... Kutch (also Cutch or Kachh) is a district of Gujarat state in western India. ... The Indus Valley Civilization existed along the Indus River and the Vedic Sarasvati River in present-day Pakistan. ... Close-up map of Lothal, and neighbouring sites in Gujarat. ... The Narmada or Nerbudda is a river in central India. ... The Tapti River is a river of central India. ... Sindh Province (Sind) (Sindhi: سنڌ ;Urdu: سندھ) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and is home to the Sindhis, Muhajirs and various other groups. ... Sindh Province (Sind) (Sindhi: سنڌ ;Urdu: سندھ) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and is home to the Sindhis, Muhajirs and various other groups. ... Saurashtra in between Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambat. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Proto-Australoids were a race of Hunter-Gatherers. ... The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental sea positioned between Europe to the north, Africa to the south and Asia to the east, covering an approximate area of 2. ... Rock with mica Mica sheet Mica flakes The mica group of minerals includes several closely related materials having highly perfect basal cleavage. ... Indigenous peoples are: Peoples living in an area prior to colonization by a state Peoples living in an area within a nation-state, prior to the formation of a nation-state, but who do not identify with the dominant nation. ...

To the northwest of Lothal lies the Kutch peninsula, which was a part of the Arabian Sea until very recently in history. Owing to this, and the proximity of the Gulf of Khambat, Lothal's river provided direct access to sea routes. Although now sealed off from the sea, Lothal's topography and geology reflects its maritime past.

After the core of the Indus civilization had decayed in Mohenjodaro and Harappa, Lothal seems not only to have survived but to have thrived for many years. But its constant threats, tropical storms and floods, caused immense destruction which destabilized the culture and ultimately caused its end. Topographical analysis also shows signs that at about the time of its demise, the region suffered from aridity or weakened monsoon rainfall. Thus the cause for the abandonment of the city may have been changes in the climate as well as natural disasters, as suggested by environmental magnetic records.^[6] Lothal is based upon a mound that was a salt marsh inundated by tide. Remote sensing and topographical studies published by Indian scientists in the Journal of the Indian Geophysicists Union in 2004 revealed an ancient, meandering river adjacent to Lothal, 30 kilometres (19 mi) in length according to satellite imagery—an ancient extension of the northern river channel bed of a tributary of the Bhogavo river. Small channel widths (10–300 m/30–1000 ft) when compared to the lower reaches (1.2–1.6 km/0.75–1.0 mi) suggest the presence of a strong tidal influence upon the city—tidal waters ingressed up to and beyond the city. Upstream elements of this river provided a suitable source of freshwater for the inhabitants.^[7] Image File history File links Gujarat Gegoraphy. ... Image File history File links Gujarat Gegoraphy. ... Kutch (also Cutch or Kachh) is a district of Gujarat state in western India. ... Map of the Arabian Sea. ... The Gulf of Cambay (also the Gulf of Khambat) is an inlet of the Arabian Sea along the west coast of India, in the state of Gujarat. ... The Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1700 BCE) was an ancient civilization thriving along the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River in what is now Pakistan and Northern India. ... Surface of the Earth Topography, a term in geography, has come to refer to the lay of the land, or the physiogeographic characteristics of land in terms of elevation, slope, and orientation. ... a term used to define dryness of an environment, [ie, an organic structure (eg plant or animal) will have more of its moisture removed more quickly when in an environment of high aridity. ... Monsoon in the Vindhya, a mountain chain in central India A monsoon is a wind pattern that reverses direction on a seasonal basis. ... This article is about marsh, a type of wetland. ... Satellite imagery consists of photographs of Earth or other planets made from artificial satellites. ... For the village on the Isle of Wight, see Freshwater, Isle of Wight. ...

History

Before the arrival of Harappan peoples (c. 2400 BC), Lothal was a small village next to the river providing access to the mainland from the Gulf of Khambhat. The indigenous peoples maintained a prosperous economy, attested by the discovery of copper objects, beads and semi-precious stones. Ceramic wares were of fine clay and smooth, micaceous red surface. A new technique of firing pottery under partly-oxidising and reducing conditions was improved by them—designated black-and-red ware, to the micaceous Red Ware. Harappans were attracted to Lothal for its sheltered harbour, rich cotton and rice-growing environment and bead-making industry. The beads and gems of Lothal were in great demand in the west. The settlers lived peacefully with the Red Ware people, who adopted their lifestyle—evidenced from the flourishing trade and changing working techniques—Harappans began producing the indigenous ceramic goods, adopting the manner from the natives.^[8] Conception of ancient Harappas Mound E Gateway [1] Harappa is a city in Punjab, northeast Pakistan, located beside a former course of the Ravi River; about 35km southwest of Sahiwal. ... Gulf of Khambhat on the right. ... rock with mica Mica sheet mica flakes The mica group of minerals includes several closely related materials having highly perfect basal cleavage. ... Unfired green ware pottery on a traditional drying rack at Conner Prairie living history museum. ...

Town planning

City Plan of Lothal.

A flood destroyed village foundations and settlements (c. 2350 BC). Harappans based around Lothal and from Sindh took this opportunity to expand their settlement and create a planned township on the lines of greater cities in the Indus valley.^[9] Lothal planners engaged themselves to protect the area from consistent floods. The town was divided into blocks of 1–2-metre-high (3–6 ft) platforms of sun-dried bricks, each serving 20–30 houses of thick mud and brick walls. The city was divided into a citadel, or acropolis and a lower town. The rulers of the town lived in the acropolis, which featured paved baths, underground and surface drains (built of kiln-fired bricks) and a potable water well. The lower town was subdivided into two sectors—the north-south arterial street was the main commercial area—flanked by shops of rich and ordinary merchants and craftsmen. The residential area was located to either side of the marketplace. The lower town was also periodically enlarged during Lothal's years of prosperity. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2465x2140, 4053 KB) Summary Source: Lothal (S.R. Rao; 1985 publication of the Director General, Archaelogical Survey of India, Government of India) Fair Use Rationale: this pictures source book was a freely-obtained information and guide book about the archaelogical... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2465x2140, 4053 KB) Summary Source: Lothal (S.R. Rao; 1985 publication of the Director General, Archaelogical Survey of India, Government of India) Fair Use Rationale: this pictures source book was a freely-obtained information and guide book about the archaelogical... This article is about a type of fortification. ... Acropolis in Athens. ... For other uses, see Bath (disambiguation). ...

Lothal engineers accorded high priority to the creation of a dockyard and a warehouse to serve the purposes of naval trade. While the consensus view amongst archaeologists identifies this structure as a "dockyard," it has also been suggested that owing to small dimensions, this basin may have been an irrigation tank and canal.^[10] The dock was built on the eastern flank of the town, and is regarded by archaeologists as an engineering feat of the highest order. It was located away from the main current of the river to avoid silting, but provided access to ships in high tide as well. The warehouse was built close to the acropolis on a 3.5-metre-high (10.5 ft) podium of mud bricks. The rulers could thus supervise the activity on the dock and warehouse simultaneously. Facilitating the movement of cargo was a mud-brick wharf, 220 metres (720 ft) long, built on the western arm of the dock, with a ramp leading to the warehouse.^[11] There was an important public building opposite to the warehouse whose superstructure has completely disappeared. Throughout their time, the city had to brace itself through multiple floods and storms. Dock and city peripheral walls were maintained efficiently. The town's zealous rebuilding ensured the growth and prosperity of the trade. However, with rising prosperity, Lothal's people failed to upkeep their walls and dock facilities, possibly as a result of over-confidence in their systems. A flood of moderate intensity in 2050 BC exposed some serious weaknesses in the structure, but the problems were not addressed properly.^[12] Small shipyard in Klaksvík (Faroe Islands), reparing fishing vessels Dockyards and shipyards are places which repair and build ships. ... Inside Green Logistics Co. ... In chemistry, salt is a term used for ionic compounds composed of positively charged cations and negatively charged anions, so that the product is neutral and without a net charge. ... The Metre (or Meter) is the base fundamental unit of length in the metric measurement system as defined originally by the French Academy of Sciences during the French Revolutionary–Napoleonic war era, and subsequently adopted by various successive International Standards Committees as the utility, elegance, and self-consistency of the... A wharf is a fixed platform, commonly on pilings, roughly parallel to and alongside navigable water, where ships are loaded and unloaded. ... A foot (plural: feet) is a non-SI unit of distance or length, measuring around a third of a meter. ...

Economy and urban culture

Excavated row of public baths.

The uniform organization of the town and its institutions give evidence that the Harappans were a very disciplined people.^[13] Commerce and administrative duties were performed according to standards laid out. Municipal administration was strict—the width of most streets remained the same over a long time, and no encroached structures were built. Householders possessed a sump, or collection chamber to deposit solid waste in order to prevent the clogging of city drains. Drains, manholes and cesspools kept the city astonishingly clean, and deposited the waste in the river, which was washed out during high tide. A new provincial style of Harappan art and painting was pioneered—new approaches included realistic portrayals of animals in their natural surroundings, including the portrayal of stories and folklore. Fire-altars were built in public places. Metalware, gold and jewellery and tastefully decorated ornaments attest to the culture and prosperity of the people of Lothal. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (478x640, 321 KB) Summary Source: Lothal (S. R. Rao; 1985 publication by Director General, Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India) Fair Use Rationale: this pictures source book was a freely-obtained information and guide book about the archaelogical site... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (478x640, 321 KB) Summary Source: Lothal (S. R. Rao; 1985 publication by Director General, Archaeological Survey of India, Government of India) Fair Use Rationale: this pictures source book was a freely-obtained information and guide book about the archaelogical site... A sump is a low area that collects an often-undesirable liquid(s) such as water or chemicals. ...

Most of their equipment—metal tools, weights, measures, seals, earthenware and ornaments—were of the uniform standard and quality found across the Indus civilization. Lothal was a major trade centre, importing en masse raw materials like copper, chert and semi-precious stones from Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, and mass distributing to inner villages and towns. It also produced large quantities of bronze celts, fish-hooks, chisels, spears and ornaments. Lothal exported its beads, gemstones, ivory and shells. The stone blade industry catered to domestic needs—fine chert was imported from the Sukkur valley or from Bijapur in modern Karnataka. Bhagatrav supplied semi-precious stones while chank shell came from Dholavira and Bet Dwarka. An intensive trade network gave the inhabitants great prosperity—it stretched across the frontiers to Egypt, Bahrain and Sumeria.^[14] General Name, Symbol, Number copper, Cu, 29 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 11, 4, d Appearance metallic brown Atomic mass 63. ... Chert Chert is a fine-grained silica-rich cryptocrystalline sedimentary rock that may contain small fossils. ... Mohenjo-daro (literally, mound of the dead), like Harappa, was a city of the Indus Valley civilization. ... Celt (pron. ... Sukkur (Urdu: سکھر) (Sindhi:سکر) is the third largest city of Sindh province, situated on the west bank of Indus River (Pakistan) in Sukkur District. ... Bijapur (Kannada: ವಿಜಾಪುರ) is a district headquarters of the Bijapur district in the state of Karnataka. ... It has been suggested that Divisions of Karnataka be merged into this article or section. ... Close-up map of Lothal, and neighbouring sites in Gujarat. ... The Indus Valley Civilization existed along the Indus River and the Hakra-Ghaggar river and their tributaries. ... Dwarka is a city in Gujarat, India. ... Sumer (or Shumer, Sumeria, Shinar, native ki-en-gir) formed the southern part of Mesopotamia from the time of settlement by the Sumerians until the time of Babylonia. ...

Declining years

Archaeological site of Lothal.

While the wider debate over the end of Indus civilization continues, archaeological evidence gathered by the ASI appears to point to natural catastrophes, specifically floods and storms as the source of Lothal's downfall. A powerful flood submerged the town and destroyed most of the houses, with the walls and platforms heavily damaged. The acropolis and the residence of the ruler were levelled (2000-1900 BC), and inhabited by common tradesmen and newly-built makeshift houses. The worst consequence was the shift in the course of the river, cutting off access to the ships and dock.^[15] Despite the ruler leaving the city, the leaderless people built a new but shallow inlet to connect the flow channel to the dock for sluicing small ships into the basin. Large ships were moored away. Houses were rebuilt, yet without removal of flood debris, which made them poor-quality and susceptible to further damage. Public drains were replaced by soakage jars. The citizens did not undertake encroachments, and rebuilt public baths and maintained fire worship. However, with a poorly organized government, and no outside agency or central government, the public works could not be properly repaired or maintained. The heavily damaged warehouse was never repaired properly, and stocks were stored in wooden canopies, exposed to floods and fire. The economy of the city was transformed. Trade volumes reduced greatly, though not catastrophically, and resources were available in lesser quantities. Independent businesses caved, allowing a merchant-centric system of factories to develop where hundreds of craftsmen worked for the same supplier and financier. The bead factory had ten living rooms and a large workplace courtyard. The coppersmith's workshop had five furnaces and paved sinks to enable multiple artisans to work.^[16] from the french wikipedia (same name) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... The Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1700 BCE) was an ancient civilization thriving along the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River in what is now Pakistan and Northern India. ...

The declining prosperity of the town, paucity of resources and poor administration increased the woes of a people pressured by consistent floods and storms. Increased salinity of soil made the land inhospitable to life, including crops. This is evidenced in adjacent cities of Rangpur, Rojdi, Rupar and Harappa in Punjab, Mohenjo-daro and Chanhudaro in Sindh. A massive flood (c. 1900 BC) completely destroyed the flagging township in a single stroke. Archaeological analysis shows that the basin and dock were sealed with silt and debris, and the buildings razed to the ground. The flood affected the entire region of Saurashtra, Sindh and south Gujarat, and affected the upper reaches of the Indus and Sutlej, where scores of villages and townships were washed away. The population fled to inner regions.^[17] Close-up map of Lothal, and neighbouring sites in Gujarat. ... Close-up map of Lothal, and neighbouring sites in Gujarat. ... Rupnagar is a town in Punjab, India. ... Punjab, 1903 Punjab Province, 1909 The Punjab (meaning: Land of five Rivers; also Panjab, Gurmukhi: ਪੰਜਾਬ, Shahmukhi: پنجاب) is a region straddling the border between India and Pakistan. ... Mohenjo-daro (literally, mound of the dead), like Harappa, was a city of the Indus Valley civilization. ... Chanhudaro is an archaeological site belonging to the Indus valley civilization. ... Sindh Province (Sind) (Sindhi: سنڌ ;Urdu: سندھ) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and is home to the Sindhis, Muhajirs and various other groups. ... Saurashtra in between Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambat. ... Gujarat (Gujarati: , Hindi: ; , IPA ; also spelled Gujrat and sometimes Gujarath) contained many of the former Princely states of India, and is the second-most industrialized state in the Republic of India after Maharashtra. ... The Indus River in northern Pakistan, near the rock Aornus. ... The Sutlej, also known as Satluj, is the longest of the five rivers of Punjab (five waters) that flows through Northern India, with its source in Tibet near Mount Kailash. ...

Later Harappan culture

Archaeological evidence shows that the site continued to be inhabited, albeit by a much smaller population devoid of urban influences. The few people who returned to Lothal could not reconstruct and repair their city, but surprisingly continued to stay and preserved religious traditions, living in poorly-built houses and reed huts. That they were the Harappan peoples is evidenced by the analyses of their remains in the cemetery. While the trade and resources of the city were almost entirely gone, the people retained several Harappan ways in writing, pottery and utensils. About this time ASI archaeologists record a mass movement of refugees from Punjab and Sindh into Saurashtra and to the valley of Sarasvati (1900-1700 BC).^[18] Hundreds of ill-equipped settlements have been attributed to this people as Late Harappans—a completely de-urbanized culture characterized by rising illiteracy, undiversified economy, unsophisticated administration and poverty. Though Indus seals went out of use, the system of weights with an 8.573 gram (0.3024 oz) unit was retained. Between 1700 and 1600 BC, trade would revive again. In Lothal, Harappan ceramic works of bowls, dishes and jars were mass-produced. Merchants used local materials such as chalcedony instead of chert for stone blades. Truncated sandstone weights replaced hexahedron chert weights. The sophisticated writing was simplified by exempting pictorial symbols, and the painting style reduced itself to wavy lines, loops and fronds. The Sarasvati River is an ancient river that is mentioned in Hindu texts. ... The Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley Civilization around 1900 BC, in and around the Punjab region. ... The gram or gramme, symbol g, is a unit of mass. ... The avoirdupois system is a system of weights defining terms such as pound and ounce. ... Chalcedony Knife, AD 1000-1200 Chalcedony is one of the cryptocrystalline varieties of the mineral quartz, having a waxy luster. ... Chert Chert is a fine-grained silica-rich cryptocrystalline sedimentary rock that may contain small fossils. ... The term Indus script refers to short strings of symbols associated with the Harappan civilization of ancient India (most of the Indus sites are distributed in present day North West India and Pakistan) dating to circa 2600–1900 BC. They are most commonly associated with flat, rectangular stone tablets called...

Civilization

The script of Lothal's people was uniform with other Indus-era cities.^[19]

The people of Lothal made significant and often unique contributions to human civilization in the Indus era, in the fields of city planning, art, architecture, science, engineering and religion. Their work in metallurgy, seals, beads and jewellery was the basis of their prosperity. Image File history File links Pakistan-pottery. ... Image File history File links Pakistan-pottery. ... Urban, city, or town planning, deals with design of the built environment from the municipal and metropolitan perspective. ... Venus de Milo exhibited in the Louvre museum, France. ... The Parthenon on top of the Acropolis, Athens, Greece Architecture (from Latin, architectura and ultimately from Greek, αρχιτεκτων, a master builder, from αρχι- chief, leader and τεκτων, builder, carpenter) is the art and science of designing buildings and structures. ... Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Science The scope of this article is limited to empirical sciences. ... Engineering is the application of scientific and technical knowledge to solve human problems. ... Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and of materials engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their intermetallic compounds and their mixtures, which are called alloys. ... Seal on envelope A seal is an impression printed on, embossed upon, or affixed to a document (or any other object) in order to authenticate it, in lieu of or in addition to a signature. ... A bead is a small, decorative object that is pierced for threading or stringing. ... Jewellery (Jewelry in American spelling) comprises ornamental objects worn by persons, typically made with gems and precious metals. ...

Science, mathematics and engineering

A thick ring-like shell object found with four slits each in two margins served as a compass to measure angles on plane surfaces or in the horizon in multiples of 40 degrees, up to 360 degrees. Such shell instruments were probably invented to measure 8–12 whole sections of the horizon and sky, explaining the slits on the lower and upper margins. Archaeologists consider this as evidence that the Lothal experts had achieved something 2,000 years before the Greeks: an 8–12 fold division of horizon and sky, as well as an instrument for measuring angles and perhaps the position of stars, and for navigation.^[20] Lothal contributes one of three measurement scales that are integrated and linear (others found in Harappa and Mohenjodaro). An ivory scale from Lothal has the smallest-known decimal divisions in Indus civilization. The scale is 6 millimetres (0.2 in) thick, 15 mm (0.6 in) broad and the available length is 128 mm (5.0 in), but only 27 graduations are visible over 46 mm (1.8 in), the distance between graduation lines being 1.70 mm (0.067 in) (the small size indicates use for fine purposes). The sum total of ten graduations from Lothal is approximate to the angula in the Arthashastra.^[21] The Lothal craftsmen took care to ensure durability and accuracy of stone weights by blunting edges before polishing.^[22] Compass in a wooden box A compass (or mariners compass) is a navigational instrument for finding directions on the earth. ... Arthashastra (also spelt Arthasastra) or the Handbook of Profit is an ancient Indian treatise on economics and politics written sometime between the 4th century BC and 150 AD by the kingmaker Chanakya (also known as Kautilya or Vishnugupta) during the early years of the Mauryan Empire. ...

For their renowned draining system, Lothal engineers provided corbelled roofs, and an apron of kiln-fired bricks over the brick face of the platform where the sewerage entered the cesspool. Wooden screens inserted in grooves in the side drain walls held back solid waste. The well is built of radial bricks, 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) in diameter and 6.7 metres (22 ft) deep. It had an immaculate network of underground drains, silting chambers and cesspools, and inspection chambers for solid waste. The extent of drains provided archaeologists with many clues regarding the layout of streets, organization of housing and baths. On average, the main sewer is 20–46 cm (7.8–18.1 in) in depth, with outer dimensions of 86 × 68 × 33 cm (34 × 27 × 13 in). Lothal brick-makers used a logical approach in manufacture of bricks, designed with care in regards to thickness of structures. They were used as headers and stretchers in same and alternate layers. Archaeologists estimate that in most cases, the bricks were in ratio 1:0.5:0.25 on three sides, in dimensions which were integral multiples of large graduations of Lothal scale of 25 mm (1.0 in).^[23] In Medieval architecture a corbel or console names a piece of stone jutting out of a wall to carry any superincumbent weight. ...

Religion and disposal of the dead

Joint burials in the cemetery.

The people of Lothal worshipped a fire god, speculated to be the horned deity depicted on seals named Atha (Athar) and Arka, which is also evidenced by the presence of private and public fire-altars where sacrifices of animals and cattle were apparently conducted. Archaeologists have discovered gold pendants, charred ashes of terra-cotta cakes and pottery, bovine remains, beads and other signs that may indicate the practice of the Gavamayana sacrifice, associated with the ancient Vedic religion.^[24] Animal worship is also evidenced, but not the worship of the Mother Goddess that is evidenced in other Harappan cities—experts consider this a sign of the existence of diversity in religious traditions. However, it is believed that a sea goddess, perhaps cognate with the general Indus-era Mother Goddess, was worshipped. Today, the local villagers likewise worship a sea goddess, Vanuvati Sikotarimata, suggesting a connection with the ancient port's traditions and historical past as an access to the sea.^[25] Image File history File links LothalGraves_(Small). ... Image File history File links LothalGraves_(Small). ... The religion of the Vedic civilization is the predecessor of classical Hinduism, usually included in the term. ... It has been suggested that Great Mother be merged into this article or section. ... Conception of ancient Harappas Mound E Gateway [1] Harappa is a city in Punjab, northeast Pakistan, located beside a former course of the Ravi River; about 35km southwest of Sahiwal. ...

At least one case of joint burial of a man and a woman have been found in Lothal. Indian archaeologists suggested the possibility of the earliest known practice of sati, or widow immolation.^[26][27] But the archaeologists also discovered that the practice had been given up by 2000 BC (determined by the difference in burial times of the carbon-dated remains). It is suggested that the practice occurred only on occasion. It is also considered that given the small number of graves discovered—only 17 in an estimated population of 15,000—the citizens of Lothal also practiced cremation of the dead. Post-cremation burials have been noted in other Indus sites like Harappa, Mehi and Damb-Bhuti.^[28] The mummified remains of an Assyrian and an Egyptian corpse were also discovered at the mound.^[29] Ceremony of Burning a Hindu Widow with the Body of her Late Husband, from Pictorial History of China and India, 1851. ... Radiocarbon dating is the use of the naturally occurring isotope of carbon-14 in radiometric dating to determine the age of organic materials, up to ca. ... The crematorium at Haycombe Cemetery, Bath, England. ... A mummy is a corpse whose skin and dried flesh have been preserved by either intentional or accidental exposure to chemicals, extreme cold or dryness, or airlessness. ... Relief from Assyrian capital of Dur Sharrukin, showing transport of Lebanese cedar (8th c. ...

Beads and seals

Lothal's seals were surprisingly and unerringly akin to the standards of almost every Indus-era site, noting a rigorous discipline in trade and economy.

The discovery of etched carnelian beads and non-etched barrel beads in Kish and Ur (modern Iraq), Jalalabad (Afghanistan) and Susa (Iran) attest to the popularity of the Lothal-centric bead industry across West Asia.^[30] The lapidaries show a refined taste in selecting stones of variegated colours, producing beads of different shapes and sizes. The methods of Lothal bead-makers were so advanced that no improvements have been noted over 4,000 years—modern makers in the Khambhat area follow the same technique. Double-eye beads of agate and collared or gold-capped beads of jasper and carnelian beads are among thos attributed as uniquely from Lothal. It was very famous for micro-cylindrical beads of steatite (chlorite).^[31] Image File history File links Triseal. ... Image File history File links Triseal. ... Imprint of a carnelian seal with Brahmi inscription Kusumadasasya (Flowers servant). 4-5th century CE, probably Punjab. ... Kish [kish] (Tall al-Uhaymir) was an ancient city of Sumer, now in central Iraq. ... UR, Ur, or ur can refer to several things: The City of Ur Ur, the first known continent Royal Game of Ur Unreal the computer game Ur is the name of a minor Gnostic deity. ... Jalalabad (Persian: Jalālābād, 34°31′N 70°31′E) is the capital of Nangarhar province in Afghanistan, 150 km east of Kabul near the Khyber Pass and west of the Kunar River. ... For other uses of the name Susa please see this page. ... A lapidary (the word means concerned with stones) is an artisan who practices the craft of working, forming and finishing stone, mineral, gemstones, and other suitably durable materials (amber, shell, jet, pearl, copal, coral, horn and bone, glass and other synthetics) into functional and/or decorative, even wearable, items (e. ... Khambhat, formerly known as Cambay, is a town in Gujarat state, India. ... Agate is a term applied not to a distinct mineral species, but to an aggregate of various forms of silica, chiefly chalcedony. ... Jasper pebble, one inch (2. ... An Egyptian carved and glazed steatite scarab amulet - circa 550 BC. Steatite (ste-a-tite), also known as Potstone and Lapis ollaris is a type of soapstone which is almost purely talc. ...

Lothal has yielded 213 seals, third in importance amongst all Indus sites, considered masterpieces of glyptic art and calligraphy. Seal-cutters preferred short-horned bulls, mountain goats, tigers and composite animals like the elephant-bull for engravings. There is a short inscription of intaglio in almost every seal. Stamp seals with copper rings inserted in a perforated button were used to sealing cargo, with impressions of packing materials like mats, twisted cloth and cords—a fact verified only at Lothal. Quantitative descriptions, seals of rulers and owners were stamped on goods. A unique seal found here is from Bahrain—circular, with motif of a dragon flanked by jumping gazelles.^[32] Calligraphy in a Latin Bible of AD 1407] on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. ... Intaglio refers to incised (negative) image-making, and is the opposite of cameo. ...

Metallurgy and jewellery

A carved stone tool, possibly a chisel-head.

Lothali copper is unusually pure, lacking the arsenic typically used by coppersmiths across the rest of the Indus valley. The city imported ingots from probable sources in the Arabian peninsula. Workers mixed tin with copper for the manufacture of celts, arrowheads, fishhooks, chisels, bangles, rings, drills and spearheads, although weapon manufacturing was minor. They also employed advanced metallurgy in following the cire perdue technique of casting, and used more than one-piece moulds for casting birds and animals.^[33] They also invented new tools such as curved saws and twisted drills unknown to other civilizations at the time.^[34] Image File history File links Lothal_tool. ... Image File history File links Lothal_tool. ... Steel woodworking chisel. ... General Name, Symbol, Number arsenic, As, 33 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 15, 4, p Appearance metallic gray Atomic mass 74. ... An ingot is a mass of metal or semiconducting material, heated past the melting point, and then recast, typically into the form of a bar or block. ... Celt (pron. ...

Lothal was one of the most important centres of production for shell-working, owing to the abundance of chank shell of high quality found in the Gulf of Kutch and near the Kathiawar coast.^[35] Gamesmen, beads, unguent vessels, chank shells, ladles and inlays were made for export and local consumption. Components of stringed musical instruments like the plectrum and the bridge were made of shell.^[36] An ivory workshop was operated under strict official supervision, and the domestication of elephants has been suggested. An ivory seal, and sawn pieces for boxes, combs, rods, inlays and ear-studs were found during excavations.^[37] Lothal produced a large quantity of gold ornaments—the most attractive item being microbeads of gold in five strands in necklaces, unique for being less than 0.25 millimetres (0.010 in) in diameter. Cylindrical, globular and jasper beads of gold with edges at right angles resemble modern pendants used by women in Gujarat in plaits of hair. A large disc with holes recovered from a sacrificial altar is compared to the rukma worn by Vedic priests. Studs, cogwheel and heart-shaped ornaments of fainence and steatite were popular in Lothal. A ring of thin copper wire turned into double spirals resembles the gold-wire rings used by modern Hindus for weddings.^[38] The Gulf of Kutch is an inlet of the Arabian Sea along the west coast of India, in the state of Gujarat. ... Kathiawar in between Gulf of Kutch and Gulf of Khambat. ... An unguent is a soothing preparation spread on sores, burns, irritations, or other topical injuries; an ointment. ... A plectrum (plural: plectra) is a device for plucking or strumming a stringed instrument. ... A bridge is the part of a guitar, bass or other stringed instrument where the strings join the body of the instrument. ... Gujarat (Gujarati: , Hindi: ; , IPA ; also spelled Gujrat and sometimes Gujarath) contained many of the former Princely states of India, and is the second-most industrialized state in the Republic of India after Maharashtra. ... An Egyptian carved and glazed steatite scarab amulet - circa 550 BC. Steatite (ste-a-tite), also known as Potstone and Lapis ollaris is a type of soapstone which is almost purely talc. ...

Art

Painted jar with decorated leaves and deer.

Pieces of red clay pottery.

Lothal offers two new types of potter work—a convex bowl with or without stud handle, and a small jar with flaring rim, both in the micaceous Red Ware period—not found in contemporary Indus cultures. Lothal artists introduced a new form of painting closely linked to modern realism.^[39] Paintings depict animals in their natural surroundings. Indeed, upon one large vessel, the artist depicts birds—with fish in their beaks—resting in a tree, while a fox-like animal stands below. This scene bears resemblance to the story of the crow and cunning fox in Panchatantra.^[40] Artistic imagination is also suggested via careful portrayals—for example, several birds with legs aloft in the sky suggest flight, while half-opened wings suggest imminent flight. On a miniature jar, the story of the thirsty crow and deer is depicted—of how the deer could not drink from the narrow-mouth of the jar, while the crow succeeded by dropping stones in the jar. The features of the animals are clear and graceful. Movements and emotions are suggested by the positioning of limbs and facial features—in a 15 × 5 cm (6 × 2 in) jar without overcrowding.^[41] Image File history File links Lothalpot2_(Small). ... Image File history File links Lothalpot2_(Small). ... Image File history File links Lothal_pottery. ... Image File history File links Lothal_pottery. ... Quaternary clay in Estonia. ... rock with mica Mica sheet mica flakes The mica group of minerals includes several closely related materials having highly perfect basal cleavage. ... Realism is commonly defined as a concern for fact or reality and rejection of the impractical and visionary. ... The Panchatantra (also spelled Pañcatantra, Sanskrit पञ्चतन्त्र Five Chapters , Kelileh va Demneh or Kalilag and Damnag in Persian) is a collection of Sanskrit fables in prose and verse. ...

A complete set of terra-cotta gamesmen, comparable to modern chessmen, has been found in Lothal—animal figures, pyramids with ivory handles and castle-like objects (similar to the chess set of Queen Hatshepsut in Egypt).^[42] The realistic portrayal of human beings and animals suggests a careful study of anatomical and natural features. The bust of a male with slit eyes, sharp nose and square-cut beard is reminiscent of Sumerian figures, especially stone sculptures from Mari. In images of men and women, muscular and physical features are sharp, prominently marked. Terra-cotta models also identify the differences between species of dogs and bulls, including those of horses. Animal figures with wheels and a movable head were used as toys.^[43] An indurated limestone sculpture of Hatshepsut in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. ... It has been suggested that Edubba be merged into this article or section. ... Cultic stela found at Mari Mari was an ancient city in Syria situated at the modern locality of Tell Hariri, on the western bank of Euphrates river. ...

Excavated Lothal

Lothal harbour

On plan, Lothal stands 285 metres (935 ft) north-to-south and 228 metres (748 ft) east-to-west. At the height of its habitation, it covered a wider area since remains have been found 300 metres (1000 ft) south of the mound. Due to the fragile nature of unbaked bricks and frequent floods, the superstructure of all buildings have receded. Dwarfed walls, platforms, wells, drains, baths and paved floors are visible.^[44] But thanks to the loam deposited by persistent floods, the dock walls were preserved beyond the great deluge (c. 1900 BC). The absence of standing high walls is attributed to erosion and brick robbery. The ancient nullah, the inlet channel and riverbed have been similarly covered up. The flood-damaged peripheral wall of mud-bricks is visible near the warehouse area. The remnants of the north-south sewer are burnt bricks in the cesspool. Cubical blocks of the warehouse on a high platform are also visible.^[45] from the french wikipedia File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... from the french wikipedia File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Loam is soil composed of a relatively even mixture of three mineral particle size groups: sand, silt, and clay. ...

The ASI has covered the peripheral walls, the wharf and many houses of the early phase with earth to protect from natural phenomena, but the entire archaeological site is nevertheless facing grave concerns about necessary preservation. Salinity ingress and prolonged exposure to the rain and sun are gradually eating away the remains of the site. But there are no barricades to prevent the stream of visitors from trudging on the delicate brick and mud work. Stray dogs throng the mound unhindered. Heavy rain in the region has damaged the remains of the sun-dried mud brick constructions. Stagnant rain water has lathered the brick and mud work with layers of moss. Due to siltation, the dockyard’s draft has been reduced by 3–4 metres (10–13 ft) and saline deposits are decaying the bricks. Officials blame the salinity on capillary action and point out that cracks are emerging and foundations weakening even as restoration work slowly progresses.^[46] Salinity is the saltiness or dissolved salt content of a body of water. ... Silt refers to soil or rock particles of a certain very small size range (see grain size). ... Capillary action or capillarity (also known as capillary motion) is the ability of a narrow tube to draw a liquid upwards against the force of gravity. ...

Dock and warehouse

Warehouse

The dock was located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt. Modern oceanographers have observed that the Harappans must have possessed great knowledge relating to tides in order to build such a dock on the ever-shifting course of the Sabarmati, as well as exemplary hydrography and maritime engineering. This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and service ships.^[47] It is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their effects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt bricks. This knowledge also enabled them to select Lothal's location in the first place, as the Gulf of Khambhat has the highest tidal amplitude and ships can be sluiced through flow tides in the river estuary. The engineers built a trapezoidal structure, with north-south arms of average 21.8 metres (71.5 ft), and east-west arms of 37 metres (121 ft).^[48] Another assessment is that the basin could have served as an irrigation tank, for the estimated original dimensions of the "dock" are not large enough, by modern standards, to house ships and conduct much traffic.^[49] Image File history File links Warehouse_(Small). ... Image File history File links Warehouse_(Small). ... The Sabarmati is a river in Western India. ... Hydrography focuses on the measurement of physical characteristics of waters and marginal land. ... Gulf of Khambhat on the right. ...

The original height of the embankments was 4.26 metres (13.98 ft). (Now it is 3.35 metres (10.99 ft).) The main inlet is 12.8 metres (42.0 ft) wide, and another is provided on the opposite side. To counter the thrust of water, offsets were provided on the outer wall faces. When the river changed its course in 2000 BC, a smaller inlet, 7 metres (23 ft) wide was made in the longer arm, connected to the river by a 2 kilometre (3.2 mi) channel. At high tide a flow of 2.1–2.4 metres (6.9–7.9 ft) of water would have allowed ships to enter. Provision was made for the escape of excess water through the outlet channel, 96.5 metres (317 ft) wide and 1.7 metres (5.6 ft) high in the southern arm. The dock also possessed a lock-gate system—a wooden door could be lowered at the mouth of the outlet to retain a minimum column of water in the basin so as to ensure floatation at low tides.^[50] Central to the city's economy, the warehouse was originally built on sixty-four cubical blocks, 3.6 metres (11.8 ft) square, with 1.2-metre (3.9-ft) passages, and based on a 3.5-metre-high (11.5 ft) mud-brick podium. The pedestal was very high to provide maximum protection from floods. Brick-paved passages between blocks served as vents, and a direct ramp led to the dock to facilitate loading. The warehouse was located close to the acropolis, to allow tight supervision by ruling authorities. Despite elaborate precautions, the major floods that brought the city's decline destroyed all but twelve blocks, which became the make-shift storehouse.^[51] A vent can refer to: A volcano. ...

Acropolis and Lower town

Ancient Lothal's Acropolis, town centre.

Lothal's acropolis was the town centre, its political and commercial heart, measuring 127.4 metres (418 ft) east-to-west by 60.9 metres (200 ft) north-to-south. Apart from the warehouse, it was the residence of the ruling class. There were three streets and two lanes running east-west, and two streets running north-south. The four sides of the rectangular platform on which houses were built are formed by mud-brick structures of 12.2–24.4 metre (40–80 ft) thickness and 2.1–3.6 metres (6.9–11.8 ft) high.^[52] The baths were primarily located in the acropolis—mostly two-roomed houses with open courtyards. The bricks used for paving baths were polished to prevent seepage. The pavements were lime-plastered and edges were wainscoted (wooden panels) by thin walls. The ruler's residence is 43.92 square metres (472.8 sq ft) in area with a 1.8-square-meter-bath (19 sq ft) equipped with an outlet and inlet. The remains of this house give evidence to a sophisticated drainage system. The Lower town marketplace was on the main north-south street 6–8 metres (20–26 ft) wide. Built in straight rows on either side of the street are residences and workshops, although brick-built drains and early period housing has disappeared. The street maintained a uniform width and did not undergo encroachment during the reconstructive periods after deluges. There are multiple two-roomed shops and workplaces of coppersmiths and blacksmiths.^[53] Image File history File links Acropolis_(Small). ... Image File history File links Acropolis_(Small). ...

Bead factory and place of worship

The bead factory, which performs a very important economic function, possesses a central courtyard and eleven rooms—residences, store and guardhouse. There is a cinder dump, as well as a double-chambered circular kiln, with stoke-holes for fuel supply. Four flues are connected with each other, the upper chamber and the stoke hold. The mud plaster of the floors and walls are vitrified owing to intense heat during work. The remnants of raw materials such as reed, cow dung, sawdust and agate are found, giving archaeologists hints of how the kiln was operated.^[54] A flue is a pipe or channel for conveying exhaust gases from a fireplace, furnace, boiler, or generator. ...

A large mud-brick building faces the factory, and its significance is noted by its plan. Four large rooms and a hall, with an overall measurement of 17.1 × 12.8 metres (56 × 42 ft). The hall has a large doorway, and a fire-altar is posed on a raised floor in the southern corner of the building. A square terra-cotta stump in the centre is associated with the place of worship found in the sister site of Kalibangan (in Rajasthan), making this a primary centre of worship for Lothal's people.^[55] Kalibangan is a town on the banks of river Ghaggar, Hanumangarh district, Rajasthan, India. ... Rajasthan (राजस्थान) is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area. ...

Notes

This article is about the History of South Asia. ... The Palaeolithic and Mesolithic in South Asia. ... Human migration denotes any movement by humans from one locality to another, often over long distances or in large groups. ... (8th millennium BC – 7th millennium BC – 6th millennium BC – other millennia) // Events Circa 7000 BC – Agriculture and settlement at Mehrgarh in South Asia. ... Mehrgarh was an ancient settlement in South Asia and is one of the most important sites in archaeology for the study of the earliest neolithic settlements in that region. ... (8th millennium BC – 7th millennium BC – 6th millennium BC – other millennia) Events circa 7000 BC – Agriculture and settlement at Mehrgarh in South Asia circa 6500 BC – English Channel formed circa 6100 BC – The Storegga Slide, causing a megatsunami in the Norwegian Sea circa 6000 BC – Neolithic Age in Korea circa... (34th century BC - 33rd century BC - 32nd century BC - other centuries) (5th millennium BC - 4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC) Events Major climate shift possibly due to shift in solar activity. ... The Indus Valley Civilization (3300–1700 BCE) was an ancient civilization thriving along the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River in what is now Pakistan and Northern India. ... (34th century BC - 33rd century BC - 32nd century BC - other centuries) (5th millennium BC - 4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC) Events Major climate shift possibly due to shift in solar activity. ... (Redirected from 1700 BC) (18th century BC - 17th century BC - 16th century BC - other centuries) (1690s BC - 1680s BC - 1670s BC - 1660s BC - 1650s BC - 1640s BC - 1630s BC - 1620s BC - 1610s BC - 1600s BC - 1590s BC - other decades) (3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC) Events 1700... The Cemetery H culture developed out of the northern part of the Indus Valley Civilization around 1900 BC, in and around the Punjab region. ... (Redirected from 1700 BC) (18th century BC - 17th century BC - 16th century BC - other centuries) (1690s BC - 1680s BC - 1670s BC - 1660s BC - 1650s BC - 1640s BC - 1630s BC - 1620s BC - 1610s BC - 1600s BC - 1590s BC - other decades) (3rd millennium BC - 2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC) Events 1700... (Redirected from 1300 BC) Centuries: 15th century BC - 14th century BC - 13th century BC Decades: 1350s BC 1340s BC 1330s BC 1320s BC 1310s BC - 1300s BC - 1290s BC 1280s BC 1270s BC 1260s BC 1250s BC Events and Trends Cecrops II, legendary King of Athens dies after a reign... The Vedic Civilization is the Indo-Aryan culture associated with the Vedas, the earliest known records of Indian history. ... (Redirected from 1500 BC) Centuries: 17th century BC - 16th century BC - 15th century BC Decades: 1550s BC 1540s BC 1530s BC 1520s BC 1510s BC - 1500s BC - 1490s BC 1480s BC 1470s BC 1460s BC 1450s BC Events and Trends Stonehenge built in Wiltshire, England The element Mercury has been... Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - 490s BC - 480s BC - 470s BC - 460s BC - 450s BC Events and Trends 509 BC - Foundation of the Roman Republic 508 BC - Office of pontifex maximus created... The position of the Kuru kingdom in Iron Age Vedic India. ... (Redirected from 1200 BC) Centuries: 14th century BC - 13th century BC - 12th century BC Decades: 1250s BC 1240s BC 1230s BC 1220s BC 1210s BC - 1200s BC - 1190s BC 1180s BC 1170s BC 1160s BC 1150s BC Events and Trends 1204 BC - Theseus, legendary King of Athens is deposed after... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 321 BC 320 BC 319 BC 318 BC 317 BC 316 BC 315 BC 314 BC 313... Mahajanapadas (महाजनपद) literally means Great kingdoms (from Sanskrit Maha = great, Janapada = foothold of tribe = country). ... Centuries: 9th century BC - 8th century BC - 7th century BC Decades: 750s BC 740s BC 730s BC 720s BC 710s BC - 700s BC - 690s BC 680s BC 670s BC 660s BC 650s BC Events and Trends 708 BC - Spartan immigrants found Taras (Tarentum, the modern Taranto) colony in southern Italy. ... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC - 320s BC - 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 326 BC 325 BC 324 BC 323 BC 322 BC - 321 BC - 320 BC 319 BC 318... Magadha was an ancient kingdom of India, mentioned in both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. ... Centuries: 8th century BC - 7th century BC - 6th century BC Decades: 730s BC 720s BC 710s BC 700s BC 690s BC - 680s BC - 670s BC 660s BC 650s BC 640s BC 630s BC Events and trends 689 BC - King Sennacherib of Assyria sacks Babylon 687 BC - Gyges becomes king of... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC - 320s BC - 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 326 BC 325 BC 324 BC 323 BC 322 BC - 321 BC - 320 BC 319 BC 318... Middle kingdoms of India refers to the political entities in India from the 6th century BCE through to the Islamic invasions and the related Decline of Buddhism from the 7th century CE. // Kingdoms and Empires The Aryans had invaded India from the Northwest, according to the Aryan Invasion Theory, and... Centuries: 8th century BC - 7th century BC - 6th century BC Decades: 650s BC 640s BC 630s BC 620s BC 610s BC - 600s BC - 590s BC 580s BC 570s BC 560s BC 550s BC Events and Trends Fall of the Assyrian Empire and Rise of Babylon 609 BC _ King Josiah... For broader historical context, see 1270s and 13th century. ... The Mauryan empire (321 to 185 BCE), at its largest extent around 230 BCE. The Lion Capital of Asoka, erected around 250 BCE. It is the emblem of India. ... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC - 320s BC - 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 326 BC 325 BC 324 BC 323 BC 322 BC - 321 BC - 320 BC 319 BC 318... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC - 180s BC - 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC Years: 189 BC 188 BC 187 BC 186 BC 185 BC - 184 BC - 183 BC 182 BC... The Gupta Empire in 400 CE (not including vassal states) The Gupta Empire was one of the largest political and military empires in ancient India. ... For alternate uses, see Number 240. ... Events End of the Eastern Wei Dynasty and beginning of the Northern Qi Dynasty in northern China. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Cholas. ... Events The Borobudur is completed. ... For broader historical context, see 1270s and 13th century. ... During the middle ages, several Islamic regimes established empires in India. ... Events: The Tynwald, the parliament of the Isle of Man, is founded. ... Events February 5 - 26 catholics crucified in Nagasaki, Japan. ... The Hoysala Empire ruled part of southern India from 1000 to 1346. ... Events March War of Independence of Western Xia occurred. ... // Events Serbian Empire was proclaimed in Skopje by Dusan Silni, occupying much of the South-Eastern Europe Foundation of the University of Valladolid Foundation of Pembroke College, University of Cambridge August 26 Battle of Crecy after which Edward the Black Prince honored the bravery of John I, Count of Luxemburg... The Delhi Sultanate (دلی سلطنت), or Sulthanath-e-Hind(سلطنتِ ہند)/Sulthanath-e-Dilli(سلطنتِ دلی) refers to the various Afghan dynasties that ruled in India from 1210 to 1526. ... Events End of the reign of Emperor Tsuchimikado, emperor of Japan Emperor Juntoku ascends to the throne of Japan Otto IV, Holy Roman Emperor excommunicated by Pope Innocent III for invading southern Italy in 1210 Gottfried von Strassburg writes his epic poem Tristan about 1210 Beginning of Delhi Sultanate Births... Events January 14 - Treaty of Madrid. ... The Vijayanagara empire was based in the Deccan, in peninsular and southern India, from 1336 onwards. ... Events End of the Kemmu restoration and beginning of the Muromachi period in Japan. ... Events March 1 - the city of Rio de Janeiro is founded April 27 - Cebu City is established becoming the first Spanish settlement in the Philippines. ... // The Mughal Empire Main article: Mughal Empire India in the 16th century presented a fragmented picture of rulers, both Muslim and Hindu, who lacked concern for their subjects and who failed to create a common body of laws or institutions. ... Events January 14 - Treaty of Madrid. ... Events January 1 - John V is crowned King of Portugal April 25 - Allied army is defeated by Bourbonic army at Almansa (Spain) in the War of the Spanish Succession. ... Extent of the Maratha Confederacy ca. ... Events February 19 - England and the Netherlands sign the Treaty of Westminster. ... 1761 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... In 1498, the Portuguese set foot in Goa. ... 1757 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... 1947 (MCMXLVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1947 calendar). ... 1947 (MCMXLVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1947 calendar). ... // Introduction The first known use of the word Punjab is in the book Tarikh-e-Sher Shah (1580), which mentions the construction of a fort by Sher Khan of Punjab. The name is mentioned again in Ain-e-Akbari (part 1), written by Abul Fazal, who also mentions that the... The history of South India begins with the Sangam age, from 200 BC to 300 AD. It is called so after the sangam literature. ... The history of Assam is the history of a confluence of peoples from the east, west and the north; the confluence of the Indo-Aryan, Austro-Asiatic and the Tibeto-Burman cultures. ... The historical regions of Pakistan are former states, provinces and territories which mainly existed between 1947 and 1975 when the current provinces and territories were finally established. ... Bengal had been quite distant and cut off (by the rivers, especially the Ganga and the Brahmaputra) from the mainland of India for ages. ... This is a timeline of Indian history. ... ... The chronology of Indian mathematics spans from the Indus Valley civilization (3300-1500 BC) and Vedic civilization (1500-500 BC) to modern India (21st century CE). ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... April 6 is the 96th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (97th in leap years). ...

References

Lothal (1985), Archaeological Survey of India.

• S. R. Rao, Lothal (published by the Director General, Archaeological Survey of India, 1985)
• A.S. Khadikar, N. Basaviah, T. K. Gundurao and C. Rajshekhar Paleoenvironments around the Harappan port of Lothal, Gujarat, western India, in Journal of the Indian Geophysicists Union (2004)
• Lawrence S. Leshnik, The Harappan "Port" at Lothal: Another View American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 70, No. 5 (Oct., 1968) , pp. 911-922
• Robert Bradnock, Rajasthan and Gujarat Handbook: The Travel Guide ISBN 190094992X
• S. R. Rao, Lothal and the Indus Civilisation ISBN 0210222786
• S. R. Rao, Lothal: A Harappan Port Town (1955 - 1962) (Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India) ASIN: B0006E4EAC
• Sir John Marshall, Mahenjo-daro and Indus Civilisation I-III (1932)
• S. P. Gupta (ed.), The Lost Sarasvati and the Indus Civilization (1995), Kusumanjali Prakashan, Jodhpur
• Jonathan Mark Kenoyer, Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilization (1998) Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195779401

Image File history File links ASIOfficialGuideBook. ... Image File history File links ASIOfficialGuideBook. ... Archaeological Survey of India is an Indian government agency under the Department of Culture that is responsible about archaeological studies and preservation of cultural monuments. ... Shikaripur Ranganatha Rao (born 1922) is an Indian archeologist who led teams credited with the discovery of a number of Harappan sites including the famous port city of Lothal in Gujarat. ... Archaeological Survey of India is an Indian government agency under the Department of Culture that is responsible about archaeological studies and preservation of cultural monuments. ... S.P. Gupta (* 1931) is a well-known Indian archaeologist and art historian. ... Jodhpur seen from Mehrangarh Fort. ... Jonathan Mark Kenoyer is an archaeologist and professor of Anthropology at the University of Wisconsin Madison. ... Oxford University Press (OUP) is a highly-respected publishing house and a department of the University of Oxford in England. ...

External links

• Lothal
• A Walk through Lothal
• Lothal and Mohenjodaro
• An invitation to the Indus Civilization (Tokyo Metropolitan Museum)
• Ancient Civilizations Timeline
• The Harappan Civilization
• Indus artefacts
• Cache of Seal Impressions Discovered in Western India
• Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization
• Collection of images