Commonly used image indicating one artist's conception of Maimonides's appearance

Maimonides (March 30, 1135 or 1138–December 13, 1204) was a Jewish rabbi, physician, and philosopher in Spain, Morocco and Egypt during the Middle Ages. He was one of the various medieval Jewish philosophers who also influenced the non-Jewish world. Although his copious works on Jewish law and ethics were initially met with opposition during his lifetime, he was posthumously acknowledged to be one of the foremost rabbinical arbiters and philosophers in Jewish history. Today, his works and his views are considered a cornerstone of Orthodox Jewish thought and study. Image File history File links Maimonides-2. ... March 30 is the 89th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (90th in leap years). ... Events January - Byland Abbey founded Stephen of Blois succeeds King Henry I. Empress Maud, daughter of Henry I and widow of Henry V opposed Stephen and claims the throne as her own Owain Gwynedd of Wales defeats the Normans at Crug Mawr. ... Events Robert Warelwast becomes Bishop of Exeter. ... December 13 is the 347th day of the year (348th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... // Events February - Byzantine emperor Alexius IV is overthrown in a revolution, and Alexius V is proclaimed emperor. ... For other uses, see Jew (disambiguation). ... Rabbi, in Judaism, means ‘teacher’, or more literally ‘great one’. The word Rabbi is derived from the Hebrew root word , rav, which in biblical Hebrew means ‘great’ or ‘distinguished (in knowledge)’. Sephardic and Yemenite Jews pronounce this word ribbÄ«; the modern Israeli pronunciation rabbÄ« is derived from a recent (18th... The Doctor by Samuel Luke Fildes This article is about the term physician, one type of doctor; for other uses of the word doctor see Doctor. ... A philosopher is a person who thinks deeply regarding people, society, the world, and/or the universe. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Posek (Hebrew פוסק, IPA: , pl. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Maimonides' full name was Moshe ben Maimon (Hebrew: משה בן מימון) and his Arabic name was أبو عمران موسى بن ميمون بن عبد الله القرطبي الإسرائيلي (Abu Imran Mussa bin Maimun ibn Abdallah al-Qurtubi al-Israili). However, he is most commonly known by his Greek name, Moses Maimonides (Μωυσής Μαϊμονίδης), which literally means, "Moses, son of Maimon", like his name in Hebrew and Arabic. Several Jewish works call him Maimoni, מימוני. However, more Jewish works refer to him by the Hebrew acronym of his title and name — Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon — calling him the RaMBaM or the Rambam (רמב"ם). “Hebrew” redirects here. ... Arabic ( or just ) is the largest living member of the Semitic language family in terms of speakers. ...

Biography

Statue of Maimonides in Córdoba, Spain

Maimonides was born in 1135 in Córdoba, Spain, during what some scholars ^{[attribution needed]} consider to be the end of the golden age of Jewish culture in Spain, after the first centuries of the Moorish rule. Maimonides studied Torah under his father Maimon who had in turn studied under Rabbi Joseph ibn Migash. The Almohades conquered Córdoba in 1148, and threatened the Jewish community with the choice of conversion to Islam, death, or exile. Maimonides' family, along with most other Jews, chose exile. For the next ten years they moved about in southern Spain, avoiding the conquering Almohades, but eventually settled in Fez in Morocco, where Maimonides acquired most of his secular knowledge, studying at the University of Al Karaouine. During this time, he composed his acclaimed commentary on the Mishnah. Image File history File links Maimonides-Statue. ... Image File history File links Maimonides-Statue. ... Events January - Byland Abbey founded Stephen of Blois succeeds King Henry I. Empress Maud, daughter of Henry I and widow of Henry V opposed Stephen and claims the throne as her own Owain Gwynedd of Wales defeats the Normans at Crug Mawr. ... Location Coordinates : Time Zone : CET (GMT +1) - summer: CEST (GMT +2) General information Native name Córdoba (Spanish) Spanish name Córdoba Founded 8th century BC Postal code 140xx Website http://www. ... The Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain, also known as the Golden Age of Arab Rule in Spain, refers to a period of history during the Muslim occupation of Spain in which Jews were generally accepted in Spanish society and Jewish religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed. ... Torah study is the study by Jews of the Torah, Tanakh, Talmud, responsa, rabbinic literature and similar works, all of which are Judaisms religious texts, for the purpose of the mitzvah (commandment) of Torah study itself, meaning study for religious (as opposed to academic) purposes. ... Rabbi, in Judaism, means ‘teacher’, or more literally ‘great one’. The word Rabbi is derived from the Hebrew root word , rav, which in biblical Hebrew means ‘great’ or ‘distinguished (in knowledge)’. Sephardic and Yemenite Jews pronounce this word ribbÄ«; the modern Israeli pronunciation rabbÄ« is derived from a recent (18th... Joseph ibn Migash (1077 - 1141) was a Rabbi, Posek, and Rosh Yeshiva in Lucena. ... The Almohad Dynasty (From Arabic الموحدون al-Muwahhidun, i. ... Forced conversion is not part of Islamic teachings. ... Historically, a martyr is a person who dies for his or her religious faith. ... Exile (band) may refer to: Exile - The American country music band Exile - The Japanese pop music band Category: ... Fez can refer to: Fez (clothing), a type of hat Fes, Morocco (or, Fez), the name of a city in Morocco Fez (That 70s Show), a character in That 70s Show, played by Wilmer Valderrama Functional electrical stimulation, FES FeS2, Pyrite, otherwise known as fools gold [[Fez (album)], this... Interior of the Al Karaouine Mosque and University The University of Al Karaouine (Arabic: ‎) (other transliterations of the name include Kairouyine, Qaraouyine, Quarawin, Al-Qarawiyin, Kairaouine, Karaouine and El Qaraouiyn) is a university located in Fes, Morocco. ... Biblical exegesis (from the Greek ἐξηγεῖσθαι to lead out) is an extensive and critical interpretation of the Bible. ... The Mishnah (Hebrew משנה, repetition) is a major source of rabbinic Judaisms religious texts. ...

Following this sojourn in Morocco, he lived briefly in the Holy Land, before settling in Fostat, Egypt, where he was physician of the Grand Vizier Alfadhil and Sultan Saladin of Egypt as well, and considered to be the greatest physician of his time, being influenced by renown Islamic thinkers such as Ibn Rushd and Al-Ghazali. ^[1][2] He composed most of his oeuvre in this last locale, including the Mishneh Torah. He died in Fostat, and was buried in Tiberias (today in Israel). His son Avraham, recognized as a great scholar, succeeded Maimonides as Nagid (head of the Egyptian Jewish Community); he also took up his father's role as court physician, at the tender age of eighteen. He greatly honored the memory of his father, and throughout his career defended his father's writings against all critics. The office of Nagid was held by the Maimonides family for four successive generations until the end of the 14th century. Fostat (also spelled Fustat; Arabic: ) was the first capital city of Egypt under Arab rule. ... The Doctor by Samuel Luke Fildes This article is about the term physician, one type of doctor; for other uses of the word doctor see Doctor. ... A Vizier (وزير, sometimes also spelled Wazir) is an Arabic term for a high-ranking religious and political advisor, often to a king or sultan. ... Sultan (Arabic: سلطان) is an Islamic title, with several historical meanings. ... Artistic representation of Saladin. ... Averroes (1126 - December 10, 1198) was an Andalusi philosopher and physician, a master of philosophy and Islamic law, mathematics and medicine. ... Haruniyah stucture in Tus, named after Harun al-Rashid, the mausoleum of Al-Ghazali is expected to be situated on the entrance of this monument Abu Hāmed Mohammad ibn Mohammad al-GhazzālÄ« (1058-1111) (Persian: ‎), known as Algazel to the western medieval world, born and died in Tus... The Mishneh Torah or Yad ha-Chazaka is a code of Jewish law by one of the most important Jewish authorities, Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, better known as Maimonides or by the Hebrew abbreviation RaMBaM (usually written Rambam in English). ... Tiberias in 1862, the ruins reminiscent of its ancient heritage. ... Rabbi Avraham son of Rambam (1168 – December 7, 1237, also Avraham Maimuni) the son of Maimonides (Rambam) was the head of the Egyptian Jewish community following his father. ... Nagid or Naggid (נגיד) is a Hebrew term meaning prince, leader, director, or head. ... The Doctor by Samuel Luke Fildes This article is about the term physician, one type of doctor; for other uses of the word doctor see Doctor. ...

He is widely respected in Spain and a statue of him was erected in Córdoba alongside his synagogue, which is no longer functioning as a Jewish house of worship but is open to the public. There is no Jewish community in Córdoba now, but the city is proud of its historical connection to Rambam.

See: History of the Jews in Egypt.

This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Works and bibliography

Manuscript page by Maimonides. Judeo-Arabic language in Hebrew letters.

Maimonides composed both works of Jewish scholarship, and medical texts. Most of Maimonides' works were written in Arabic. However, the Mishneh Torah was written in Hebrew. His Jewish texts were: Image File history File links Download high resolution version (518x792, 111 KB)Source: Jewish Encyclopedia ([1]) From the Cairo genizah This article incorporates text from the public domain 1901-1906 Jewish Encyclopedia File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (518x792, 111 KB)Source: Jewish Encyclopedia ([1]) From the Cairo genizah This article incorporates text from the public domain 1901-1906 Jewish Encyclopedia File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this... Categories: Language stubs | Judaism-related stubs | Mizrahi Jews | Arab | Arabic languages | Jewish languages ... Note: This article contains special characters. ... Arabic ( or just ) is the largest living member of the Semitic language family in terms of speakers. ... “Hebrew” redirects here. ...

• The Commentary on the Mishna, in Hebrew Pirush Hamishnayos, written in Arabic. This text was one of the first commentaries of its kind; its introductory sections are widely quoted. See Mishnah Commentaries for details;
• Sefer Hamitzvot ("The Book of Commandments"). See 613 mitzvot for details;
• The Mishneh Torah (also known as " Sefer Yad ha-Chazaka"), a comprehensive code of Jewish law;
• The Guide for the Perplexed, a philosophical work harmonising and differentiating Aristotle's philosophy and Jewish theology;
• Teshuvot, collected correspondence and responsa, including a number of public letters (on resurrection and the after-life, on conversion to other faiths, and Iggereth Teiman - addressed to the oppressed Jewry of Yemen).

Maimonides also wrote a number of medical texts; some of which are still in existence. The best known is his collection of medical aphorisms, titled Fusul Musa in Arabic ("Chapters of Moses", Pirkei Moshe in Hebrew). The Mishnah (Hebrew משנה, repetition) is a major source of rabbinic Judaisms religious texts. ... Sefer Hamitzvot (Book of Commandments) is a work by the 12th century rabbi, philosopher and physician Maimonides. ... Main article: Mitzvah 613 Mitzvot or 613 Commandments (Hebrew: ‎ transliterated as Taryag mitzvot; TaRYaG is the acronym for the numeric value of 613) are a list of commandments from God in the Torah. ... The Mishneh Torah or Yad ha-Chazaka is a code of Jewish law by one of the most important Jewish authorities, Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, better known as Maimonides or by the Hebrew abbreviation RaMBaM (usually written Rambam in English). ... The Guide for the Perplexed (Hebrew:מורה נבוכים, translit. ... Aristotle (Greek: Aristotélēs) (384 BC – March 7, 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. ... Note: This is based on an entry from the 1906 public domain Jewish Encyclopedia The responsa literature, known in Hebrew as Sheelot U-teshuvot (questions and answers), is the body of written decisions and rulings given by rabbis to questions addressed to them. ... After Life DVD cover After Life (Wandafuru raifu, lit. ... The Yemen Epistle arose because of religious persecution and heresy in 12th Century Yemen. ... See drugs, medication, and pharmacology for substances that are used to treat patients. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Influence

The title page of The Guide for the Perplexed

Maimonides was by far the most influential figure in medieval Jewish philosophy. A popular medieval saying that also served as his epitaph states, From Moshe (of the Torah) to Moshe (Maimonides) there was none like Moshe. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (585x825, 280 KB) Summary Title page The Guide for the Perplexed by Maimonides Licensing File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Maimonides Guide for the Perplexed ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (585x825, 280 KB) Summary Title page The Guide for the Perplexed by Maimonides Licensing File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Maimonides Guide for the Perplexed ... An epitaph ( literally: on the gravestone in ancient Greek) is text honoring the deceased, most commonly inscribed on a tombstone or plaque. ... Moses with the Tablets, 1659, by Rembrandt This article is about the Biblical figure. ...

Radical Jewish scholars in the centuries that followed can be characterised as "Maimonideans" or "anti-Maimonideans". Moderate scholars were eclectics who largely accepted Maimonides' Aristotelian world-view, but rejected those elements of it which they considered to contradict the religious tradition. Such eclecticism reached its height in the 14th-15th centuries. Aristotelianism is a tradition of philosophy that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle. ...

The most rigorous medieval critique of Maimonides is Hasdai Crescas' Or Hashem. Crescas bucked the eclectic trend, by demolishing the certainty of the Aristotelian world-view, not only in religious matters, but even in the most basic areas of medieval science (such as physics and geometry). Crescas' critique provoked a number of 15th century scholars to write defenses of Maimonides. A translation of Crescas was produced by Harry Austryn Wolfson of Harvard University, in 1929. There have been a number of Jewish writers and rabbis in the Crescas family, including: Hasdai Crescas Vidal de Caslar Crescas Astruc Don Crescas Mordecai En Crescas, of Orange (Don) Vidal Crescas of Perpignan Abiatharibn Crescas Ha-Kohen, doctor to King Juan II. of Aragon (1458-79) Israel ben Joseph... Or Hashem, (Or Adonai), The Light of the Lord, is the primary work of Rabbi Hasdai Crescas (c. ... Part of a scientific laboratory at the University of Cologne. ... There have been a number of Jewish writers and rabbis in the Crescas family, including: Hasdai Crescas Vidal de Caslar Crescas Astruc Don Crescas Mordecai En Crescas, of Orange (Don) Vidal Crescas of Perpignan Abiatharibn Crescas Ha-Kohen, doctor to King Juan II. of Aragon (1458-79) Israel ben Joseph... Harry Austryn Wolfson (November 2, 1887–September 19, 1974) was a scholar, philosopher, historian, and the first chairman of a Judaic Studies Department in the United States. ... Harvard University (incorporated as The President and Fellows of Harvard College) is a private university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. Founded in 1636,[2] Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States. ...

See also Maimonides School

Maimonides School (Hebrew: ישיבת רמבם) is a coeducational, Modern Orthodox, Jewish day school located in Brookline, Massachusetts. ...

The 13 principles of faith

Main article: Jewish principles of faith

In his commentary on the Mishna (tractate Sanhedrin, chapter 10), Maimonides formulates his 13 principles of faith. They summarized the basic premises of Jewish belief with regards to: There are a number of basic Jewish principles of faith that were formulated by medieval rabbinic authorities. ...

1. The existence of God
2. God's unity
3. God's spirituality and incorporeality
4. God's eternity
5. God alone should be the object of worship
6. Revelation through God's prophets
7. The preeminence of Moses among the prophets
8. God's law given on Mount Sinai
9. The immutability of the Torah as God's Law
10. God's foreknowledge of human actions
11. Reward of good and retribution of evil
12. The coming of the Jewish Messiah
13. The resurrection of the dead

These principles were controversial when first proposed, evoking criticism by Hasdai Crescas and Joseph Albo, and were effectively ignored by much of the Jewish community for the next few centuries. ("Dogma in Medieval Jewish Thought", Menachem Kellner). However, these principles became widely held; today, Orthodox Judaism holds these beliefs to be obligatory. Two poetic restatements of these principles (Ani Ma'amin and Yigdal) eventually became canonized in the "siddur" (Jewish prayer book). Spirituality, in a narrow sense, concerns itself with matters of the spirit. ... Incorporeal is the descriptional attribute of something that cannot be manifested into anything tangible or at least representational at a one dimensional level. ... While in the popular mind, eternity often simply means existing for an infinite, i. ... Taken during a Hindu prayer ceremony on the eve of Diwali. ... Revelation is an uncovering or disclosure via communication from the divine of something that has been partially or wholly hidden or unknown. ... In religion, a prophet (or prophetess) is a person who has directly encountered the numinous or the divine and serves as an intermediary with humanity. ... Moses with the Tablets, 1659, by Rembrandt This article is about the Biblical figure. ... View from the summit of Mount Sinai Sinai Peninsula, showing location of Jabal Musa Mount Sinai (Arabic: طور سيناء), also known as Mount Horeb, Mount Musa, Gebel Musa or Jabal Musa (Moses Mountain) by the Bedouins, is the name of a mountain in the Sinai Peninsula. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... It has been suggested that Proportional justice be merged into this article or section. ... In Judaism and Jewish eschatology, the Messiah (Hebrew: משיח; Mashiah, Mashiach, or Moshiach, anointed [one]) is a term traditionally referring to a future Jewish king from the Davidic line who will be anointed (the meaning of the Hebrew word משיח) with holy anointing oil and inducted to rule the Jewish people during... Look up Resurrection in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Hasdai ben Abraham Crescas (c. ... Joseph Albo was a Spanish rabbi, and theologian of the fifteenth century, known chiefly as the author of the work on the Jewish principles of faith, Ikkarim. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Ani Maamin (Hebrew: I believe) is a prosaic rendition of Maimonides thirteen-point version of the Jewish principles of faith. ... The hymn which in the various rituals shares with Adon Olam the place of honor at the opening of the morning and the close of the evening service. ... The siddur (plural siddurim) is the prayerbook used by Jews over the world, containing a set order of daily prayers. ...

Legal works

A recent newly corrected version of Mishneh Torah, Maimonides' main work of Halakha

Main article: Mishneh Torah

With Mishneh Torah, Maimonides composed a code of Jewish law with the widest-possible scope and depth. The work gathers all the binding laws from the Talmud, and incorporates the positions of the Geonim (post-Talmudic early Medieval scholars, mainly from Mesopotamia). It is a highly-systematised work, and employs a very clear Hebrew, reminiscent of the style of the Mishnah. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (622x997, 163 KB)book picture. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (622x997, 163 KB)book picture. ... The Mishneh Torah or Yad ha-Chazaka is a code of Jewish law by one of the most important Jewish authorities, Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon, better known as Maimonides or by the Hebrew abbreviation RaMBaM (usually written Rambam in English). ... The first page of the Vilna Edition of the Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Berachot, folio 2a The Talmud (Hebrew: תלמוד) is a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history. ... Geonim (also Gaonim) (גאונים) (Singular: Gaon [גאון] meaning pride in Biblical Hebrew and genius in modern Hebrew) were the rabbis who were the Jewish Talmudic sages who were the generally accepted spiritual leaders of the Jewish community in the early medieval era, in contrast to the Resh Galuta/ Exilarch who wielded secular... The Mishnah (Hebrew משנה, repetition) is a major source of rabbinic Judaisms religious texts. ...

While Mishneh Torah is now considered the fore-runner of the Arbaah Turim and the Shulchan Arukh^{[citation needed]} (two later codes), it met initially with much opposition^{[citation needed]}. There were two main reasons for this opposition. Firstly, Maimonides had refrained from adding references to his work for the sake of brevity^{[citation needed]}. Secondly, in the introduction, he gave the impression of wanting to "cut out" study of the Talmud^{[citation needed]}, to arrive at a conclusion in Jewish law. His most forceful opponents were the rabbis of Provence (Southern France), and a running critique by Rabbi Abraham ben David (Raavad III) is printed in virtually all editions of Mishneh Torah. However, it was recognized as a monumental contribution to the systemized writing of Halakha. Throughout the centuries, it has been widely studied and its halakhic decisions have weighed heavily in later rulings. Arbaah Turim (ארבעה טורים, Hebrew: Four rows), also abbreviated as Tur, is an important work of Jewish law, composed by Rabbi Yaakov ben Asher (Baal ha-Turim) of Spain (1270_ca 1340). ... The Shulkhan Arukh (Hebrew: שולחן ערוך, literally:Set Table), by Rabbi Yosef Karo is considered the most authoritative compilation of Jewish law since the Talmud. ... Coat of arms of Provence Provence (Provençal Occitan: Provença in classical norm or Prouvènço in Mistralian norm) is a former Roman province and is now a region of southeastern France, located on the Mediterranean Sea adjacent to the Italian border. ... Abraham ben David was a Jewish, French commentator on the Talmud. ... Halakha (Hebrew: הלכה; also transliterated as Halakhah, Halacha, Halakhot and Halachah with pronunciation emphasis on the third syllable, kha), is the collective corpus of Jewish religious law, including biblical law (the 613 mitzvot) and later talmudic and rabbinic law as well as customs and traditions. ...

An oft-cited legal maxim from his pen is: "It is better and more satisfactory to acquit a thousand guilty persons than to put a single innocent one to death." Maimonides argued that executing a defendant on anything less than absolute certainty would lead to a slippery slope of decreasing burdens of proof, until we would be convicting merely "according to the judge's caprice."^[3]

Philosophy

Through the Guide for the Perplexed and the philosophical introductions to sections of his commentaries on the Mishna, Maimonides exerted an important influence on the Scholastic philosophers, especially on Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas, and Duns Scotus. He was himself a Jewish Scholastic. Educated more by reading the works of Arab Muslim philosophers than by personal contact with Arabian teachers, he acquired an intimate acquaintance not only with Arab Muslim philosophy, but with the doctrines of Aristotle. Maimonides strove to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy and science with the teachings of the Torah. The Guide for the Perplexed (Hebrew:מורה נבוכים, translit. ... Scholasticism comes from the Latin word scholasticus, which means that [which] belongs to the school, and is the school of philosophy taught by the academics (or schoolmen) of medieval universities circa 1100–1500. ... Albertus is also the name of a typeface. ... Saint Thomas Aquinas (also Thomas of Aquin, or Aquino; c. ... Blessed John Duns Scotus (c. ... Aristotle (Greek: Aristotélēs) (384 BC – March 7, 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. ... The philosopher Socrates about to take poison hemlock as ordered by the court. ... The Bible is the collection of Religious text or books of Judaism and Christianity. ...

Negative theology

The principle which inspired his philosophical activity was identical with the fundamental tenet of Scholasticism: there can be no contradiction between the truths which God has revealed, and the findings of the human mind in science and philosophy. Maimonides primarily relied upon the science of Aristotle and the teachings of the Talmud and Aristotle, commonly finding basis in the former for the latter. In some important points, however, he departed from the teaching of Aristotle; for instance, he rejected the Aristotelian doctrine that God's provident care extends only to humanity, and not to the individual. This article discusses the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ... Aristotle (Greek: Aristotélēs) (384 BC – March 7, 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. ... The first page of the Vilna Edition of the Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Berachot, folio 2a The Talmud (Hebrew: תלמוד) is a record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish law, ethics, customs and history. ... Aristotle (Greek: Aristotélēs) (384 BC – March 7, 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. ...

Maimonides was led by his admiration for the neo-Platonic commentators to maintain many doctrines which the Scholastics could not accept. For instance, Maimonides was an adherent of "negative theology" (also known as "Apophatic theology".) In this theology, one attempts to describe God through negative attributes. For instance, one should not say that God exists in the usual sense of the term; all we can safely say is that God is not non-existent. We should not say that "God is wise"; but we can say that "God is not ignorant", i.e. in some way, God has some properties of knowledge. We should not say that "God is One", but we can state that "there is no multiplicity in God's being". In brief, the attempt is to gain and express knowledge of God by describing what God is not; rather than by describing what God "is". Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is an ancient school of philosophy beginning in the 3rd century A.D. It was based on the teachings of Plato and Platonists; but it interpreted Plato in many new ways, such that Neoplatonism was quite different from what Plato taught, though not many Neoplatonists would... Negative theology - also known as the Via Negativa (Latin for Negative Way) and Apophatic theology - is a theology that attempts to describe God by negation, to speak of God only in terms of what may not be said about God. ...

The Scholastics agreed with him that no predicate is adequate to express the nature of God; but they did not go so far as to say that no term can be applied to God in the affirmative sense. They admitted that while "eternal", "omnipotent", etc., as we apply them to God, are inadequate, at the same time we may say "God is eternal" etc., and need not stop, as Moses did, with the negative "God is not not-eternal", etc. In essence what Maimonides wanted to express is that when people give God anthropomorphic qualities they do not do justice to His greatness.

Prophecy

He agrees with "the philosophers" in teaching that, man's intelligence being one in the series of intelligences emanating from God, the prophet must, by study and meditation, lift himself up to the degree of perfection required in the prophetic state. But here, he invokes the authority of "the Law", which teaches that, after that perfection is reached, there is required the "free act of God", before the man actually becomes a prophet.

The problem of evil

Maimonides wrote on theodicy (the philosophical attempt to reconcile the existence of a god with the existence of evil in the world). He took the premise that an omnipotent and good god exists. He completely rejects the neo-Platonic dualism of evil matter and good soul. Instead he adopts the Aristotelian view that defines evil as the lack of, or the reduced presence of a god, as exhibited by those who exercise the free choice of rejecting belief. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Astrology

Maimonides answered an inquiry concerning astrology, addressed to him from Marseille. He responded that man should believe only what can be supported either by rational proof, by the evidence of the senses, or by trustworthy authority. He affirms that he had studied astrology, and that it does not deserve to be described as a science. The supposition that the fate of a man could be dependent upon the constellations is ridiculed by him; he argues that such a theory would rob life of purpose, and would make man a slave of destiny. (See also fatalism, predestination.) Hand-coloured version of the anonymous Flammarion woodcut. ... http://www. ... It has been suggested that Theological fatalism be merged into this article or section. ... Predestination and foreordination are religious concepts, under which the relationship between the beginning of things and the destiny of things is discussed. ...

True beliefs versus necessary beliefs

In "Guide for the Perplexed" Book III, Chapter 28, Maimonides explicitly draws a distinction between "true beliefs", which were beliefs about God which produced intellectual perfection, and "necessary beliefs", which were conducive to improving social order. Maimonides places anthropomorphic statements about God in the latter class. He uses as an example the notion that God becomes "angry" with people who do wrong. In the view of Maimonides (taken from Avicenna) God does not actually become angry with people, as God has no human passions; but it is important for them to believe God does, so that they desist from sinning. The Guide for the Perplexed (Hebrew:מורה נבוכים, translit. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

Resurrection, acquired immortality, and the afterlife

Maimonides distinguishes two kinds of intelligence in man, the one material in the sense of being dependent on, and influenced by, the body, and the other immaterial, that is, independent of the bodily organism. The latter is a direct emanation from the universal active intellect; this is his interpretation of the noûs poietikós of Aristotelian philosophy. It is acquired as the result of the efforts of the soul to attain a correct knowledge of the absolute, pure intelligence of God. Aristotle (Greek: AristotélÄ“s) (384 BC – March 7, 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. ... This article discusses the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ...

The knowledge of God is a form of knowledge which develops in us the immaterial intelligence, and thus confers on man an immaterial, spiritual nature. This confers on the soul that perfection in which human happiness consists, and endows the soul with immortality. One who has attained a correct knowledge of God has reached a condition of existence which renders him immune from all the accidents of fortune, from all the allurements of sin, and even from death itself. Man, therefore is in a position not only to work out his own salvation and immortality.

The resemblance between this doctrine and Spinoza's doctrine of immortality is so striking as to warrant the hypothesis that there is a causal dependence of the later on the earlier doctrine. The differences between the two Jewish thinkers are, however, as remarkable as the resemblance. While Spinoza teaches that the way to attain the knowledge which confers immortality is the progress from sense-knowledge through scientific knowledge to philosophical intuition of all things sub specie æternitatis, Maimonides holds that the road to perfection and immortality is the path of duty as described in the Torah and the rabbinic understanding of the oral law. Benedictus de Spinoza or Baruch de Spinoza (Hebrew: ברוך שפינוזה) (lived November 24, 1632 – February 21, 1677) was a Dutch philosopher of Portuguese Jewish origin. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... An oral law is a code of conduct in use in a given culture, religion or other regroupement, by which a body of rules of human behaviour is transmitted by oral tradition and effectively respected, or the single rule that is orally transmitted. ...

Religious Jews not only believed in immortality in some spiritual sense, but most believed that there would at some point in the future be a messianic era, and a resurrection of the dead. This is the subject of Jewish eschatology. Maimonides wrote much on this topic, but in most cases he wrote about the immortality of the soul for people of perfected intellect; his writings were usually not about the resurrection of dead bodies. This prompted hostile criticism from the rabbis of his day, and sparked a controversy over his true views. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Rabbinic works usually refer to this afterlife as "Olam Haba" (the World to Come). Some rabbinic works use this phrase to refer to a messianic era, an era of history right here on Earth; in other rabbinic works this phrase refers to a purely spiritual realm. It was during Maimonides's lifetime that this lack of agreement flared into a full blown controversy, with Maimonides charged as a heretic by some Jewish leaders. Look up Heresy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Some Jews at this time taught that Judaism did not require a belief in the physical resurrection of the dead, as the afterlife would be a purely spiritual realm. They used Maimonides' works on this subject to back up their position. In return, their opponents claimed that this was outright heresy; for them the afterlife was right here on Earth, where God would raise dead bodies from the grave so that the resurrected could live eternally. Maimonides was brought into this dispute by both sides, as the first group stated that his writings agreed with them, and the second group portrayed him as a heretic for writing that the afterlife is for the immaterial spirit alone. Eventually, Maimonides felt pressured to write a treatise on the subject, the "Ma'amar Tehiyyat Hametim" "The Treatise on Resurrection." This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Chapter two of the treatise on resurrection refers to those who believe that the world to come involves physically resurrected bodies. Maimonides refers to one with such beliefs as being an "utter fool" whose belief is "folly".

If one of the multitude refuses to believe [that angels are incorporeal] and prefers to believe that angels have bodies and even that they eat, since it is written (Genesis 18:8) 'they ate', or that those who exist in the World to Come will also have bodies—we won't hold it against him or consider him a heretic, and we will not distance ourselves from him. May there not be many who profess this folly, and let us hope that he will go no farther than this in his folly and believe that the Creator is corporeal.

However, Maimonides also writes that those who claimed that he altogether believed the verses of the Hebrew Bible referring to the resurrection were only allegorical were spreading falsehoods and "revolting" statements. Maimonides asserts that belief in resurrection is a fundamental truth of Judaism about which there is no disagreement, and that it is not permissible for a Jew to support anyone who believes differently. He cites Daniel 12:2 and 12:13 as definitive proofs of physical resurrection of the dead when they state "many of them that sleep in the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life and some to reproaches and everlasting abhorrence" and "But you, go your way till the end; for you shall rest, and will arise to your inheritance at the end of the days." Tanakh (Hebrew: ‎) (also Tanach, IPA: or , or Tenak, is an acronym that identifies the Hebrew Bible. ... The Book of Daniel, written in Hebrew and Aramaic, is a book in both the Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) and the Christian Old Testament. ...

While these two positions may be seen as in contradiction (non-corporeal eternal life, versus a bodily resurrection), Maimonides resolves them with a then unique solution: Maimonides believed that the resurrection was not permanent or general. In his view, God never violates the laws of nature. Rather, divine interaction is by way of angels, which Maimonides holds to be metaphors for the laws of nature, the principles by which the physical universe operates, or Platonic eternal forms. Thus, if a unique event actually occurs, even if it is perceived as a miracle, it is not a violation of the world's order (Commentary on the Mishna, Avot 5:6.) A Gothic angel in ivory, c1250, Louvre An angel is a supernatural being found in many religions. ...

In this view, any dead who are resurrected must eventually die again. In his discussion of the 13 principles of faith, the first five deal with knowledge of God, the next four deal with prophecy and the Torah, while the last four deal with reward, punishment and the ultimate redemption. In this discussion Maimonides says nothing of a universal resurrection. All he says it is that whatever resurrection does take place, it will occur at an indeterminate time before the world to come, which he repeatedly states will be purely spiritual.

He writes "It appears to us on the basis of these verses (Daniel 12:2,13) that those people who will return to those bodies will eat, drink, copulate, beget, and die after a very long life, like the lives of those who will live in the Days of the Messiah." Maimonides thus disassociated the resurrection of the dead from both the World to Come and the Messianic era.

In his time, many Jews believed that the physical resurrection was identical to the world to come; thus denial of a permanent and universal resurrection was considered tantamount to denying the words of the Talmudic sages. However, instead of denying the resurrection, or maintaining the current dogma, Maimonides posited a third way: That resurrection had nothing to do with the messianic era (here in this world) nor to do with Olam Haba (the purely spiritual afterlife). Rather, he considered resurrection to be a miracle that the book of Daniel predicted; thus at some point in time we could expect some instances of resurrection to occur temporarily, which would have no place in the final eternal life of the righteous.

Maimonides and the Modernists

Maimonides remains the most widely debated and controversial Jewish thinker among modern scholars. He has been adopted as a symbol and an intellectual hero by almost all major movements in modern Judaism, and has proven immensely important to philosophers such as Leo Strauss; and his views on the importance of humility have been taken up by modern humanist philosophers, like Peter Singer and Iain King. Maimonides' importance to diverse systems of thought lies in the philosopher's embrace of paradoxical and often contradictory ideas. Maimonides' reconciliation of the philosophical and the traditional has given his legacy an extremely diverse and dynamic quality. Leo Strauss (September 20, 1899 – October 18, 1973), was a German-born political philosopher who specialized in the study of classical political philosophy. ... Humility is a quality or characteristic ascribed to a person who is considered to be humble. ... Humanism[1] is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people, based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appeal to universal human qualities—particularly rationalism. ... For other persons named Peter Singer, see Peter Singer (disambiguation). ... Iain King (born 1971) is a contemporary British moral philosopher. ...

References

• Marvin Fox Interpreting Maimonides, Univ. of Chicago Press 1990.
• Julius Guttman, Philosophies of Judaism Translated by David Silverman, JPS, 1964
• Maimonides' Principles: The Fundamentals of Jewish Faith, in "The Aryeh Kaplan Anthology, Volume I", Mesorah Publications 1994
• Dogma in Medieval Jewish Thought, Menachem Kellner, Oxford University press, 1986
• Maimonides Thirteen Principles: The Last Word in Jewish Theology? Marc. B. Shapiro, The Torah U-Maddah Journal, Vol. 4, 1993, Yeshiva University
• A History of Jewish Philosophy, Isaac Husik, Dover Publications, Inc., 2002. Originally published in 1941 by the Jewish Publication of America, Philadelphia, pp. 236-311
• Persecution and the Art of Writing, Leo Strauss, University of Chicago Press, 1988 reprint
• "How to Begin to Study the Guide", Leo Strauss, from The Guide of the Perplexed, Vol. 1, Maimonides, translated from the Arabic by Shlomo Pines, University of Chicago Press, 1974
• This article incorporates text from the 1901–1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, a publication now in the public domain.

Cover of Julius Guttmanns Julius Guttmann (Hebrew: יוליוס גוטמן), born Yitzchak Guttmann (April 15, 1880, Hildesheim - May 19, 1950, Jerusalem) was a German-born rabbi, Jewish theologian, and philosopher of religion. ... Aryeh Kaplan (1934 - 1983) was a noted rabbi and author, who had a background in both physics and Judaism. ... The Masoretic Text (MT) is the Hebrew text of the Tanakh approved for general use in Judaism. ... Portrait of Isaac Husik. ... Leo Strauss (September 20, 1899 – October 18, 1973), was a German-born political philosopher who specialized in the study of classical political philosophy. ... The Jewish Encyclopedia was an encyclopedia originally published between 1901 and 1906 by Funk and Wagnalls. ... The public domain comprises the body of all creative works and other knowledge—writing, artwork, music, science, inventions, and others—in which no person or organization has any proprietary interest. ...

See also

• Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain
• Thomas Aquinas
• Averroes

The Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain, also known as the Golden Age of Arab Rule in Spain, refers to a period of history during the Muslim occupation of Spain in which Jews were generally accepted in Spanish society and Jewish religious, cultural, and economic life blossomed. ... Saint Thomas Aquinas (also Thomas of Aquin, or Aquino; c. ... Ibn Rushd, known as Averroes (1126 – December 10, 1198), was an Andalusian-Arab philosopher and physician, a master of philosophy and Islamic law, mathematics, and medicine. ...

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• Maimonides entry in Jewish Encyclopedia
• Maimonides entry in the Encyclopaedia Judaica, 2nd edition
• Maimonides as a Philosopher
• The Influence of Islamic Thought on Maimonides
• Maimonides' Life from Friedlander translation of the Guide
• Maimonides/Rambam from the Jewish Virtual Library
• Maimonidean controversy
• Rambam's Secret Teachings, a possibly unconventional interpretation of Rambam by Yaakov Bekker (Hebrew)
• William Turner. Teaching of Moses Maimonides. Catholic Encyclopedia.
• R. Yakov Weinberg's commentary on Maimonides 13 principles From Aish.com

Chabad About Maimonides The word Hebrew most likely means to cross over, referring to the Semitic people crossing over the Euphrates River. ... The Catholic Encyclopedia, also referred to today as the Old Catholic Encyclopedia, is an English-language encyclopedia published in 1913 by The Encyclopedia Press. ...

• Who was Maimonides?
• Why did Maimonides live in Egypt if the Torah forbids returning there?
• A brief Biography of Maimonides
• Maimonides’ Universal Acceptance
• Maimonides – A Light Unto the Nations
• Daily Study of Rambam - Text and Audio (English and Hebrew)
• Maimonides Mishneh (or Mishnah) Torah or Rambam - the codified laws compiled by Maimonides

Texts by Maimonides

• Mishnetorah Project, one volume of the accurate text and 8 indexes
• Siddur Mesorat Moshe, a prayerbook based on the early Jewish liturgy as found in Maimonides' Mishneh Torah
• Maimonides Page: links to online resources
• The Foundations of Jewish Belief

• Rambam's introduction to the Mishnah Torah (English translation)
• Rambam's introduction to the Commentary on the Mishnah (Hebrew Fulltext)
• Rambam (Maimonides) In Russian Translation
• The Guide For the Perplexed by Moses Maimonides translated into English by Michael Friedländer
• Oath and Prayer of Maimonides, as a choice instead of the Hippocratic Oath in medical profession. (Considered by historians an 18th century forgery)
• Writings of Maimonides; manuscripts and early print editions. Jewish National and University Library