NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Meaning of life

The meaning of life is an elusive concept that has been the subject of much philosophical, scientific and theological speculation.^[1]^[2]^[3]^[4]
It is often expressed in various related questions:^[5] For other uses, see Philosophy (disambiguation). ... A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. ... Theology finds its scholars pursuing the understanding of and providing reasoned discourse of religion, spirituality and God or the gods. ... For other uses, see Question (disambiguation). ...

Throughout history, scientists and philosophers, theologians and artists, and generally, men and women of every age, race, and culture have discussed and debated many questions in the quest to discover and understand the meaning of life.^[5] Look up meaning in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article is about life in general. ... For the definition, see Life. ... This article is about the physical universe. ... For other uses, see Reality (disambiguation). ... Purpose in its most general sense is the anticipated aim which guides action. ... See: statistical significance significant figures This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The value of life (or price of life) is an economic or moral value assigned to life in general, or to specific living organisms. ... For other uses, see Reason (disambiguation). ...

Philosophy, belief, faith and the meaning of life

Philosophy is concerned with issues like ethics, what constitutes genuine knowledge and proper reasoning. The issue of the meaning of life has a rich tradition of thought in the history of philosophy. For example, philosophers have considered such questions as: For other uses, see Philosophy (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Ethics (disambiguation). ... Theory of knowledge redirects here: for other uses, see theory of knowledge (disambiguation) According to Plato, knowledge is a subset of that which is both true and believed Epistemology or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature, methods, limitations, and validity of knowledge and belief. ... Logic (from Classical Greek Î»ÏŒÎ³Î¿Ï‚ logos; meaning word, thought, idea, argument, account, reason, or principle) is the study of the principles and criteria of valid inference and demonstration. ... The history of philosophy is the study of philosophical ideas and concepts through time. ...

Some philosophical disciplines have also aimed to develop an understanding of life that explains, regardless of how we came to be here, what we should do now that we are here. (see Humanist views of the meaning of life)

Religions are belief systems relying on the faith of their adherents. They may be defined as organized traditions of rules and orthodoxy that attempt to serve spiritual needs of their followers.^[17] Religions give an answer to the question "What is the meaning of my life?", where the religious answer tends to include a certain moral demand.^[26] Generally, religions play important parts in devising spiritual terms that soothe grieve in bereavements and keep humanity gentle-hearted with facing death.^[27] For other uses, see Believe. ... For other uses, see Faith (disambiguation). ...

Spirituality is generally linked to one's deepest inwardness and innermost being and also involves awareness, sensibility and transcendence. Contemporary understandings of spirituality emphasise the dynamic quality of spirituality as lived experience; an experience linked to our bodies, to nature, to our relationships with others and society. It is an experience which seeks the fullness of life, a life that touches the spirit, in the midst of all our struggles of living. Spirituality can also be described as a different way of seeing, seeing our own lives, those of others and all life on earth in a different light and from a different perspective, the discovery of new insight and wisdom whereby we reshape the inwardness of our lives. Spirituality is always connected to an inner-awakening, a discovery and transforming of one's understanding and insight.^[7] Spirituality may basically be summarized as understanding the meaning of life, all of life and reality itself.^[28] Spirituality, in a narrow sense, concerns itself with matters of the spirit. ...

Mysticism focuses more on direct experience than religions generally do. Various forms of mysticism are associated with one or more religions, and some may form an independent movement, thus the view of mysticism varies widely according to how each speaker describes it. In general, the view is broadly that life is a happening, an unfolding, and the meaning of life is conceived as how one fits in the scheme of things. The purpose of life is mystical enlightenment, which can be defined as ending a sense of an individual self by means of mystical cultivation. It involves knowledge of the fundamental nature of reality and living a life in accordance with it.^[29] This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Western philosophy

Western philosophy is a modern claim that there is a line of related philosophical thinking, beginning in ancient Greece (Greek philosophy) and the ancient Near East (the Abrahamic religions), that continues to this day. ...

Ancient philosophy

This page lists some links to ancient philosophy, although for Western thinkers prior to Socrates, see Pre-Socratic philosophy. ... Download high resolution version (804x1052, 186 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (804x1052, 186 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... This article is about the Renaissance artist. ... The School of Athens or in Italian is one of the most famous paintings by the Italian Renaissance artist Raphael. ...

Platonic view of the meaning of life

Plato was one of the earliest and most influential thinkers of Western philosophy, most famous for his realist stance regarding the existence of universals. In the Theory of Forms he asserts that universals do not exist in the way that ordinary physical objects exist, but rather with a sort of ghostly or heavenly mode of existence. He describes the Form of the Good in his dialogue, The Republic, speaking through the character of Socrates. The Idea of the Good is the child or offspring (ekgonos) of the Good, the ideal or perfect nature of goodness, and so an absolute measure of justice. Platonic idealism is the theory that the substantive reality around us is only a reflection of a higher truth. ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... Contemporary philosophical realism, also referred to as metaphysical realism, is the belief in a reality that is completely ontologically independent of our conceptual schemes, linguistic practices, beliefs, etc. ... In metaphysics, a universal is a type, a property, or a relation. ... This article is about Platos Forms. ... Plato describes The Form of the Good in his book, The Republic, using Socrates as his mouth piece. ... For other uses, see Dialogue (disambiguation). ... The Republic is an influential dialogue by Plato, written in the first half of the 4th century BC. This Socratic dialogue mainly is about political philosophy and ethics. ... This page is about the Classical Greek philosopher. ... Platonic realism is a philosophical term usually used to refer to the idea of realism regarding the existence of universals after the Greek philosopher Plato who lived between c. ... This article is about the concept of justice. ...

For Plato the meaning of life is to attain the highest form of knowledge, which is the Idea (or Form) of the Good. It is from this which all things that are good and just gain their usefulness and value. Humans have a duty to pursue the good, but no one can hope to do this successfully without philosophical reasoning.

Aristotelian view of the meaning of life

Aristotle, a student of Plato, was another of the earliest and most influential philosophers. He believed that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge (like metaphysics and epistemology) but is general knowledge. Because it is not a theoretical discipline, he thought a person had to study in order to become 'good'. Thus if a person were to become virtuous, he could not simply study what virtue is, he had to actually do virtuous activities. Aristotle believed that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge (like metaphysics and epistemology) but is general knowledge. ... For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ... Plato (Left) and Aristotle (right), by Raphael (Stanza della Segnatura, Rome) Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy concerned with explaining the ultimate nature of reality, being, and the world. ... Theory of knowledge redirects here: for other uses, see theory of knowledge (disambiguation) According to Plato, knowledge is a subset of that which is both true and believed Epistemology or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature, methods, limitations, and validity of knowledge and belief. ... The word theory has a number of distinct meanings in different fields of knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. ... Personification of virtue (Greek á¼€ÏÎµÏ„Î®) in Celsus Library in Ephesos, Turkey Virtue (Latin virtus; Greek ) is moral excellence of a person. ...

In order to do this, Aristotle had to first establish what was virtuous. He began by determining that everything was done with some goal in mind and that goal is 'good':

But, if action A is done with the goal B, the goal B would also have a goal, goal C. Goal C would also have a goal and this would continue until something stopped the infinite regress. This was the Highest Good, and he said that it must have three characteristics: Nicomachean Ethics Nicomachean Ethics (sometimes spelled Nichomachean), or Ta Ethika, is a work by Aristotle on virtue and moral character which plays a prominent role in defining Aristotelian ethics. ... An infinite regress is a series of propositions arises if the truth of proposition P1 requires the support of proposition P2, and for any proposition in the series Pn, the truth of Pn requires the support of the truth of Pn+1. ... Summum bonum (greatest or supreme good) was first introduced to humanity as Ahura-Mazda, `The Ultimate Good` who is God, by the Persian prophet Zoroaster, whose ideas would later heavily influence Judeo-Christian beliefs. ...

Thus for Aristotle, the meaning of life involves achieving eudaemonia, which is usually translated as "happiness," but could also be "well-being" or "flourishing." Some have translated the classical Greek word eudaimonia (Îµá½Î´Î±Î¹Î¼Î¿Î½á½·Î±, used by Aristotle) as the word happiness, although Princeton University Aristotle scholar John M. Cooper proposes the translation, human flourishing. ...

Nicomachean Ethics Nicomachean Ethics (sometimes spelled Nichomachean), or Ta Ethika, is a work by Aristotle on virtue and moral character which plays a prominent role in defining Aristotelian ethics. ...

Cynic views of the meaning of life

Cynicism is one of the most striking of all the Hellenistic philosophies. It offered people the possibility of happiness and freedom from suffering in an age of uncertainty. Although there was never an official Cynic doctrine, the fundamental principles of Cynicism can be summarised as follows:^[30]^[31] This article is about the current understanding of the word cynicism. ... The Hellenistic period (4th - 1st c. ...

For other uses, see Happiness (disambiguation). ... This article is about the physical universe. ... Personification of virtue (Greek á¼€ÏÎµÏ„Î®) in Celsus Library in Ephesos, Turkey Virtue (Latin virtus; Greek ) is moral excellence of a person. ... Its over and done But the heartache lives on inside And who is the one your clinging to instead of me tonight And where are you now Now that I need you Tears on my pillow Wherever you go Cry me a river that leads to your oceans Youll never...

Cyrenaic views of the meaning of life

Cyrenaicism is a hedonistic school founded by Aristippus of Cyrene. It was one of the earliest Socratic schools, and emphasized one side only of the Socratic teaching. Taking Socrates' assertion that happiness is one of the ends of moral action, Aristippus maintained that pleasure was the supreme good, creating an ultra-hedonistic view. He found bodily gratifications, which he considered more intense, preferable to mental pleasures. They also denied that we should defer immediate gratification for the sake of long-term gain. In these respects they differ from the Epicureans.^[32]^[33] This article does not cite any sources. ... Aristippus (c. ...

Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 450 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (1200 Ã— 1600 pixel, file size: 330 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 450 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (1200 Ã— 1600 pixel, file size: 330 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Epicure redirects here. ... Hermes-type bust (pillar with the top as a sculpted head) of Metrodorus leaned with his back against Epicurus, in the Louvre For other persons bearing this name, see Metrodorus (disambiguation). ... This article is about the museum. ...

Epicurean views of the meaning of life

Epicurus believed that while the pursuit of pleasure formed the focal point of the philosophy, this was largely directed to the 'static pleasures' of minimizing pain, anxiety and suffering. This article does not cite any sources. ... Epicureanism is a system of philosophy based upon the teachings of Epicurus (c. ... Epicure redirects here. ...

Epicureanism rejects immortality and mysticism; it believes in the soul, but suggests that the soul is as mortal as the body. Epicurus rejected any possibility of an afterlife, while still contending that one need not fear death:

Stoic views of the meaning of life

Stoicism teaches the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions; the philosophy holds that becoming a clear and unbiased thinker allows one to understand the universal reason (logos). Stoicism's prime directives are virtue, reason, and natural law. The Stoics did not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles by developing clear judgment and inner calm through diligent practice of logic, reflection, and concentration. Stoics believe that to live according to reason and virtue is to live in harmony with the divine order of the universe, which entails the recognition of the common reason and essential value of all people. Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy, founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early third century BC. It proved to be a popular and durable philosophy, with a following throughout Greece and the Roman Empire from its founding until all the schools of philosophy were ordered closed... Look up Emotion in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article is about logos (logoi) in ancient Greek philosophy, mathematics, rhetoric, Theophilosophy, and Christianity. ... Personification of virtue (Greek á¼€ÏÎµÏ„Î®) in Celsus Library in Ephesos, Turkey Virtue (Latin virtus; Greek ) is moral excellence of a person. ... For other uses, see Reason (disambiguation). ... Natural law or the law of nature (Latin: lex naturalis) is an ethical theory that posits the existence of a law whose content is set by nature and that therefore has validity everywhere. ...

The foundation of Stoic ethics is that good lies in the state of the soul itself, and it is exemplified by wisdom and self-control. The meaning of life is to be free of suffering through apatheia (απαθεια) (Greek) understood as being objective or having "clear judgment", rather than simple indifference. Another essential aspect of Stoicism involves improving the individual’s spiritual well-being: "Virtue consists in a will which is in agreement with Nature."^[35] This principle also applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy".^[35] For the apocryphal book of the Bible, see Book of Wisdom. ... Suffering, or pain in this sense,[1] is a basic affective experience of unpleasantness and aversion associated with harm or threat of harm in an individual. ... Objectivity has several meanings: Objectivity (philosophy) Objectivity (journalism) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...

19th century philosophy

In the 18th Century the philosophies of The Enlightenment would begin to have dramatic effect, and the landmark works of philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and Jean-Jacques Rousseau would have an electrifying effect on a new generation of thinkers. ...

Nihilist views of the meaning of life

Nihilism rejects claims to knowledge and truth, and explores the meaning of an existence without knowable truth. Though nihilism tends toward defeatism, one can find strength and reason for celebration in the varied and unique human relationships it explores. From a nihilist point of view, morals are valueless and only hold a place in society as false ideals created by various forces. The characteristic that distinguishes nihilism from other skeptical or relativist philosophies is that, rather than merely insisting that values are subjective or even warrantless, nihilism declares that nothing is of value, as the name implies. This article is about the philosophical position. ... For the philosophical movement, see Existentialism. ... Defeatism is acceptance and content with defeat without struggle. ...

Friedrich Nietzsche characterized nihilism as emptying the world and especially human existence of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, or essential value. He summed up the process of nihilism as "the devaluing of the highest values".^[36] He also saw nihilism as a natural result of the idea that God is dead, and insisted that it was something to be overcome, by calling the nihilist's life-negating values in question and return meaning to the Earth.^[2] Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15, 1844 â€“ August 25, 1900) (IPA: ) was a nineteenth-century German philologist and philosopher. ... This article is about the philosophical position. ... For the novel, see God is Dead (novel). ...

Martin Heidegger described nihilism as the movement whereby Being is forgotten and is wholly transformed into value, or in other words, the reduction of being to exchange value.^[36] Martin Heidegger (September 26, 1889 â€“ May 26, 1976) (IPA ) was a highly influential German philosopher. ...

Pragmatist views of the meaning of life

Pragmatism is a school of philosophy which originated in the United States in the late 1800s. Pragmatism is characterized by the insistence on consequences, utility and practicality as vital components of truth. Pragmatism holds that it is only in the struggle of intelligent organisms with the surrounding environment that theories and data acquire significance. Pragmatism does not hold, however, that just anything that is useful or practical should be regarded as true, or anything that helps us to survive merely in the short-term; pragmatists argue that what should be taken as true is that which most contributes to the most human good over the longest course. In practice, this means that for pragmatists, theoretical claims should be tied to verification practices — i.e., that one should be able to make predictions and test them − and that ultimately the needs of humankind should guide the path of human inquiry. Pragmatism is a philosophic school that originated in the late nineteenth century with Charles Sanders Peirce, who first stated the pragmatic maxim. ... // Invention of the Jacquard loom in 1801. ...

Pragmatic philosophers suggest that rather than a truth about life, we should seek a useful understanding of life. William James argued that truth could be made but not sought.^[37]^[38] Thus, the meaning of life is a belief about the purpose of life that does not contradict one's experience of a purposeful life. Roughly, this could be applied as: "The meaning of life is those purposes which cause you to value it." To a pragmatist, the meaning of life, your life, can be discovered only through experience. This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ...

Utilitarian views of the meaning of life

The origins of Utilitarianism are often traced back as far as the Greek philosopher Epicurus, but as a specific school of thought, it is generally credited to Jeremy Bentham.^[39] Bentham found pain and pleasure to be the only intrinsic values in the world: "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure." From this he derived the rule of utility, that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. Later, after realizing that the formulation recognized two different and potentially conflicting principles, he dropped the second part and talked simply about "the greatest happiness principle." Jeremy Bentham, British philosopher, 1748-1832 The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... Jeremy Bentham, British philosopher, 1748-1832 The two-dimensional work of art depicted in this image is in the public domain in the United States and in those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years. ... This article discusses utilitarian ethical theory. ... Epicure redirects here. ... Jeremy Bentham (IPA: ) (26 February [O.S. 15 February 15] 1748) â€“ June 6, 1832) was an English jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer. ...

Jeremy Bentham's foremost proponent was James Mill, a significant philosopher in his day and the father of John Stuart Mill. The younger Mill was educated according to Bentham's principles, including transcribing and summarising much of his father's work whilst still in his teens."^[40] Jeremy Bentham (IPA: ) (26 February [O.S. 15 February 15] 1748) â€“ June 6, 1832) was an English jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer. ... James Mill James Mill (April 6, 1773 - June 23, 1836), Scottish historian, economist and philosopher, was born at Northwater Bridge, in the parish of Logie-Pert, Angus, Scotland, the son of James Mill, a shoemaker. ... John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 â€“ 8 May 1873), British philosopher, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential liberal thinker of the 19th century. ...

In his famous short work, Utilitarianism, John Stuart Mill argued that cultural, intellectual, and spiritual pleasures are of greater value than mere physical pleasure, because the former would be valued more highly by competent judges than the latter. A competent judge, according to Mill, is anyone who has experienced both the lower pleasures and the higher.^[41] John Stuart Mills book Utilitarianism is one of the most influential and widely-read philosophical defenses of utilitarianism in ethics. ... John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 â€“ 8 May 1873), British philosopher, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential liberal thinker of the 19th century. ...

20th century philosophy

The 20th century brought with it upheavals that produced a series of conflicting developments within philosophy over the basis of knowledge and the validity of various absolutes. ...

Existentialist views of the meaning of life

There has been a wide variety in Existentialist thought. Arthur Schopenhauer offered a bleak answer to "what is the meaning of life?" by determining one's life as a reflection of one's will and the will (and thus life) as being an aimless, irrational, and painful drive. He saw salvation, deliverance, or escape from suffering in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, and asceticism.^[42]^[43] Søren Kierkegaard invented the term "leap of faith" and argued that life is full of absurdity and the individual must make his or her own values in an indifferent world. For Kierkegaard, an individual can have a meaningful life (or at least one free of despair) if the individual relates the self in an unconditional commitment to something finite, and devotes his or her life to the commitment despite the inherent vulnerability of doing so.^[44] Existentialism is a philosophical movement that posits that individuals create the meaning and essence of their lives, as opposed to deities or authorities creating it for them. ... Arthur Schopenhauer (February 22, 1788 â€“ September 21, 1860) was a German philosopher best known for his work The World as Will and Representation. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... SÃ¸ren Aabye Kierkegaard (IPA: , but usually Anglicized as ; ) 5 May 1813 â€“ 11 November 1855) was a prolific 19th century Danish philosopher and theologian. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Absurdism is a philosophy stating that the efforts of humanity to find meaning in the universe will ultimately fail (and, hence, are absurd) because no such meaning exists, at least in relation to humanity. ...

Humanist views of the meaning of life

According to Humanism, the human race came to be by reproducing in a progression of unguided evolution as an integral part of nature, which is self-existing.^[45]^[46] Knowledge does not come from supernatural sources, rather it flows from human observation, experimentation, and rational analysis preferably utilizing the scientific method: the nature of the universe is what we discern it to be.^[45] As are "values and realities", which are determined "by means of intelligent inquiry"^[45] and "are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience", that is, by critical intelligence.^[47]^[48] "As far as we know, the total personality is [a function] of the biological organism transacting in a social and cultural context."^[46] This article discusses Humanism as a non-theistic life stance. ... Image File history File links Humanism. ... Image File history File links Humanism. ... The Happy Human For the non-theistic humanistic life stance in a broader sense, please see Humanism (life stance). ... Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people, based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appeal to universal human qualities â€” particularly rationality. ... Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people, based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appeal to universal human qualities â€” particularly rationality. ... The Human Race could be: The Human race. ... This article is about evolution in biology. ... This article is about the physical universe. ... Scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. ... For other uses, see Universe (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Ethics (disambiguation). ... are you kiddin ? i was lookin for it for hours ...

Humanists believe that human purpose is determined by humans, completely without supernatural influence; it is human personality (in the broadest sense) that is the purpose of a human's life, and this humanism seeks to develop and fulfill:^[45] "Humanism affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity."^[47] Humanists seek enlightened self-interest and the common good for all people. The happiness of the individual is inextricably linked to the well-being of humanity as a whole, in part because we are social animals which find meaning in relationships, and because cultural progress benefits everybody who lives in that culture.^[46]^[47] For other uses, see Supernatural (disambiguation). ... Enlightened self-interest is a philosophy in ethics which states that persons who act to further the interests of others (or the interests of the group or groups to which they belong), ultimately serve their own self-interest. ... The common good is a term that can refer to several different concepts. ... For other uses, see Happiness (disambiguation). ... In the contexts of sociology and of popular culture, the concept of interpersonal relationships involves social associations, connections, or affiliations between two or more people. ... For other uses, see Culture (disambiguation). ...

Posthumanism and transhumanism (sometimes used as synonyms) are extensions of humanistic values. Like humanism, they propose that we should seek the advancement of humanity and of all life to the greatest degree feasible, with an emphasis on reconciling the views of Renaissance humanism to correspond more closely to the 21st century's concepts of technoscientific knowledge. These views insist that all living things be granted the basic option to inquire after their own personal or social "meaning(s) of life" (including meanings that human beings are currently incompetent to comprehend) as much as it is physically possible to do so, and no less.^[49] They insist that the meaning of life is necessarily indefinite and ambiguous, and should be left to the philosophical inclinations of the individual; however there is a moral imperative common to all intelligent agents to improve their lives. This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Posthuman Future, an illustration by Michael Gibbs for The Chronicle of Higher Educations look at how biotechnology will change the human experience, has become one of the secular icons representing transhumanism. ... Synonyms (in ancient Greek syn συν = plus and onoma όνομα = name) are different words with similar or identical meanings. ... The Human Race could be: The Human race. ... Biocentrism is the belief that all life, or even the whole universe living or otherwise taken as a whole, is equally valuable and humanity is not the center of existence. ... Renaissance humanism (often designated simply as humanism) was a European intellectual movement beginning in Florence in the last decades of the 14th century. ... 20XX redirects here. ... Technoscience is a concept widely used in the interdisciplinary community of science and technology studies to designate the technological and social context of science. ...

Logical positivist views of the meaning of life

Of the meaning of life, Ludwig Wittgenstein and the logical positivists said: expressed in language, the question is meaningless. This is because "meaning of x" is a term in life usually conveying something regarding the consequences of x, or the significance of x, or that which should be noted regarding x, etc. So when "life" is used as "x" in the term "meaning of x", the statement becomes recursive and therefore nonsensical, or would simply refer to the obvious fact that the condition of life is essential for having meaning (in life). Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein (IPA: ) (April 26, 1889 in Vienna, Austria â€“ April 29, 1951 in Cambridge, England) was an Austrian philosopher who contributed several ground-breaking ideas to philosophy, primarily in the foundations of logic, the philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of language, and the philosophy of mind. ... Logical positivism grew from the discussions of Moritz Schlicks Vienna Circle and Hans Reichenbachs Berlin Circle in the 1920s and 1930s. ... This article is about the concept of recursion. ...

In other words, things in a person's life can have meaning (importance), but a meaning of life itself, i.e., apart from those things, can't be discerned. In this context, a person's life is said to have meaning (significance to himself and others) in the form of the events throughout his life and the results of his life in terms of achievements, a legacy, family, etc. But to say that life itself has meaning is a misuse of language, since any note of significance or consequence is relevant only in life (to those living it), rendering the statement erroneous. Bertrand Russell, for example, wrote that although he found it impossible to bring himself to seriously believe that his distaste for torture was similar in nature to his distaste for broccoli, he nonetheless could find no satisfactory empirical method of proving this:^[35] Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS, (18 May 1872 â€“ 2 February 1970), was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, advocate for social reform, and pacifist. ...

Abrahamic religions

Abrahamic religions symbols designating the three prevalent monotheistic religions â€“ Judaism, Christianity, and Islam Abrahamic religion is a term commonly used to designate the three prevalent monotheistic religions â€“ Judaism, Christianity, and Islam[1][2] â€“ which claim Abraham (Hebrew: Avraham ×Ö·×‘Ö°×¨Ö¸×”Ö¸× ; Arabic: Ibrahim Ø§Ø¨Ø±Ø§Ù‡ÙŠÙ… ) as a part of their sacred history. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...

Jewish views of the meaning of life

Jews believe the purpose of life is to serve God^[51] and to prepare for the world to come^[52] "Olam Haba".^[53] To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Judaism regards life as a precious gift from God; precious not only because it is a gift from God, but because, for humans, there is a uniqueness attached to that gift. Of all the creatures on Earth, humans are created in the image of God. Our lives are sacred and precious because we carry within us the Divine Image, and with it, unlimited potential.^[54]

While Jewish thoughts are about elevating oneself in spirituality and connecting to God and trying to prepare for "Olam Haba", Jewish thought is to use this world, "Olam Hazeh," to help elevate ourself into the next.

Kabbalah, Jewish mysticism, takes it one step further. The Zohar states that the reason for life is to better one's soul. The soul descends to this world and endures the trials of this life so that it can reach a higher spiritual state upon its return to the source. This article is about traditional Jewish Kabbalah. ...

Christian views of the meaning of life

Christians draw many of their beliefs from the Holy Bible, and believe that loving God is the meaning of life. In order to achieve this, one would ask for forgiveness of sins and receive God into their heart. Christianity believes in an eternal afterlife, and declares that it is an unearned gift from God through the love of Jesus Christ, which is to be received or forfeited by faith. (Ephesians 2:8-9; Romans 6:23); (John 3:16-21; John 3:36). This article is about the religous people known as Christians. ... For other uses, see Bible (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Atonement (disambiguation). ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... For other uses, see Faith (disambiguation). ...

Christians believe they are being tested and purified so that they may have a place of responsibility with Jesus in the eternal Kingdom to come. What the Christian does in this life will determine his place of responsibility with Jesus in the eternal Kingdom to come. Jesus encouraged Christians to be overcomers, so that they might share in the glorious reign with Him in the life to come: "To him who overcomes, I will give the right to sit with me on my throne, just as I overcame and sat down with my Father on his throne. He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches." (Rev 3:21-22)

The Bible states that it is God "in whom we live and move and have our being" (Acts 17:28), that to Fear God is the beginning of wisdom, and to depart from evil is the beginning of understanding (Job 28:28) and that "In Christ Jesus are hidden all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge" (Colossians 2:3). The Bible also says, in Ecclesiastes 12:13 "Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter: Fear God, and keep his commandments: for this is the whole duty of man", and "Whether therefore ye eat, or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God." Corinthians 10:31 For other uses, see Fear (disambiguation). ... For the apocryphal book of the Bible, see Book of Wisdom. ... For other uses, see Evil (disambiguation). ...

In one of the Westminster Articles (1647), the Shorter Catechism, the first question is "What is the chief end of man?", or in other words, 'What is man's main purpose?'. The answer, according to the Catechism is "Man's chief end is to glorify God and enjoy him forever." It goes on to explain that God requires of us to obey the moral law revealed to us, summarily comprehended in the Ten Commandments, which proclaim that we must "love the Lord our God with all our heart, with all our soul, with all our strength, and with all our mind; and our neighbour as ourselves."^[55] For other uses, see Ten Commandments (disambiguation). ...

Islamic views of the meaning of life

In Islam the ultimate objective of man is to seek the pleasure of Allah by living in accordance with the Divine guidelines as stated in the Qur'an and the Tradition of the Prophet. The Qur'an clearly states that the whole purpose behind the creation of man was for gloryfying and worshipping Allah:^[56] "I only created jinn and man to worship Me" (Qur'an 51:56). Worshiping in Islam means to testify to the oneness of God in his lordship, names and attributes. To Muslims, life was created as a test, and how well one performs on this test will determine whether one finds a final home in Jannah (Heaven) or Jahannam (Hell). For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... Allah is the Arabic language word for God. ... The Qurâ€™Än [1] (Arabic: , literally the recitation; also sometimes transliterated as Quran, Koran, or Al-Quran) is the central religious text of Islam. ... Genie is the anglicized word for the Arabic jinni. In Semitic mythology and Islamic religion, a jinni (also djinni or djini) is a member of the jinn (or djinn), a race of spirits. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Jahannam (Arabic: )(in Turkish: cehennem, in Bosnian: dÅ¾ehennem) is the Islamic equivalent to Gei Hinnom. ...

The esoteric Muslim view, generally held by Sufis, the universe exists only for God's pleasure. Creation works as a grand game,^[57] with Allah as the greatest prize.^[57] Etymology Esoteric is an adjective originating during Hellenic Greece under the domain of the Roman Empire; it comes from the Greek esÃ´terikos, from esÃ´tero, the comparative form of esÃ´: within. It is a word meaning anything that is inner and occult, a latinate word meaning hidden (from which... There is also a collection of Hadith called Sahih Muslim A Muslim (Arabic: Ù…Ø³Ù„Ù…, Persian: Mosalman or Mosalmon Urdu: Ù…Ø³Ù„Ù…Ø§Ù†, Turkish: MÃ¼slÃ¼man, Albanian: Mysliman, Bosnian: Musliman) is an adherent of the religion of Islam. ... Sufism (Arabic تصوف taṣawwuf) is a system of esoteric philosophy commonly associated with Islam. ...

Bahá'í views of the meaning of life

The Bahá'í Faith, founded by Bahá'u'lláh, emphasizes the spiritual unity of all humankind.^[58] According to Bahá'í teachings, religious history has unfolded through a series of God's messengers who brought teachings suited for the capacity of the people at their time, and whose fundamental purpose is the same. Image File history File links This is a general image of a Bahai symbol File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links This is a general image of a Bahai symbol File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... The official symbol of the BahÃ¡Ã Faith is the five-pointed star, as mentioned by Shoghi Effendi: Strictly speaking the 5-pointed star is the symbol of our Faith, as used by the BÃ¡b and explained by Him. ... The official symbol of the BahÃ¡Ã Faith is the five-pointed star, as mentioned by Shoghi Effendi: Strictly speaking the 5-pointed star is the symbol of our Faith, as used by the BÃ¡b and explained by Him. ... Contemporary Western Calligraphy. ... The official symbol of the BahÃ¡Ã Faith is the five-pointed star, as mentioned by Shoghi Effendi: Strictly speaking the 5-pointed star is the symbol of our Faith, as used by the BÃ¡b and explained by Him. ... This article is about the generally recognized global religious community. ... Shrine of BahÃ¡ullÃ¡h BahÃ¡ullÃ¡h (ba-haa-ol-laa Arabic: Glory of God) (November 12, 1817 â€“ May 29, 1892), born MÃrzÃ¡ usayn-`AlÃ Nuri (Persian: ), was the founder of the BahÃ¡Ã Faith. ... The BahÃ¡Ã teachings represent a considerable number of theological, social, and spiritual ideas that were established in the BahÃ¡Ã Faith by its central figures. ... This article discusses the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ...

The purpose of human life, say Bahá'ís, is spiritual growth. This is conceived almost as an organic process, like the development of a fetus, and continues after death. Neither a physical Heaven or Hell are present in the Bahá'í Faith. The Bahá'í teachings present "Heaven" and "Hell" to be states of spiritual nearness or remoteness to God, and that life continues in an afterlife through which the soul may progress infinitely through ever-more-exalted spiritual realms, eventually coming to stand before the Presence of God. The Bahá'í faith teaches that this process continues on in the spiritual afterlife, and not through a series of births and re-births as in reincarnation.
^[59]^[60]^[61] For other uses, see Heaven (disambiguation). ... This article is about the theological or philosophical afterlife. ... This article is about the theological concept. ...

Bahá'ís believe that while God's essence can never be fully fathomed, he can be understood through his "names and attributes." These are sometimes referred to as gems, and include such qualities as compassion, justice, knowledge, and wisdom. Education (especially of a spiritual nature) reveals the divine gems which God has placed within our souls.^[62]

Dharmic religions and philosophy

Hindu views of the meaning of life

Hinduism is an extremely diverse religion. Although some tenets of the faith are accepted by most Hindus, scholars have found it difficult to identify any doctrines with universal acceptance among all denominations.^[63] Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul—the true "self" of every person, called the ātman—is eternal.^[64] The purusharthas are the canonical four ends or aims of human life.^[65]^[66]^[67] These goals are, from lowest to highest importance: Kāma (sensual pleasure or love), Artha (wealth), Dharma (righteousness or morality) and Moksha (liberation from the cycle of reincarnation) Hinduism is a religious tradition[1] that originated in the Indian subcontinent. ... The Atman or Atma (IAST: Ä€tmÄ, sanskrit: à¤†à¤¤à¥à¤®â€ ) is a philosophical term used within Hinduism and Vedanta to identify the soul. ... In Hinduism, the purusharthas are the four chief aims of human life. ... KÄma (Skt. ... Artha is a Sanskrit term referring to the idea of material prosperity. ... For other uses, see Dharma (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Moksha (disambiguation). ... This article is about the theological concept. ...

According to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as the Advaita Vedanta school), the ātman is ultimately indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. Brahman is described as "The One Without a Second;" hence these schools are called "non-dualist."^[68] The goal of life according to the Advaita school is to realize that one's atman (soul) is identical to Brahman, the supreme soul.^[69] The Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of one's own self, realises their identity with Brahman and thereby reaches Moksha (liberation or freedom)^[64]^[70]^[71] The notion of lila (literally, "play") refers to the idea of the universe as a cosmic game, and meaning as a "play of significance".^[72] This "play", manifested in the million-formed inexhaustible richness of beings and events, is what gives us the key to the meaning of life.^[73] For other uses, see Monist (disambiguation). ... Pantheism (Greek: Ï€Î¬Î½ ( pan ) = all and Î¸ÎµÏŒÏ‚ ( theos ) = God) literally means God is All and All is God. It is the view that everything is of an all-encompassing immanent abstract God; or that the universe, or nature, and God are equivalent. ... Advaita Vedanta (IAST ; Sanskrit ; IPA ) is a sub-school of the VedÄnta (literally, end or the goal of the Vedas, Sanskrit) school of Hindu philosophy. ... This page deals with the Hindu concept of The Supreme Reality. ... This page deals with the Hindu concept of The Supreme Reality. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... The Atman or Atma (IAST: Ä€tmÄ, sanskrit: à¤†à¤¤à¥à¤®â€ ) is a philosophical term used within Hinduism and Vedanta to identify the soul. ... This page deals with the Hindu concept of The Supreme Reality. ... The Upanishads (उपनिषद्, Upanişad) are part of the Hindu Shruti scriptures which primarily discuss meditation and philosophy and are seen as religious instructions by most schools of Hinduism. ... For other uses, see Moksha (disambiguation). ... Lila is a concept from Hinduism that explains the universe as a cosmic puppet theater or playground for the gods. ...

Other Hindu schools, such as the dualist Dvaita Vedanta and other bhakti schools, understand Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses personality. On these conceptions, the ātman is dependent on Brahman, and the meaning of life is to achieve Moksha through love towards God and on God's grace.^[70] This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Dvaita (Devanagari:à¤¦à¥à¤¬à¥ˆà¤¤, Kannada:à²¦à³à²µà³ˆà²¤) (also known as Tattvavada and Bheda-vada), a school of Vedanta (the most widespread Hindu philosophy) founded by Madhvacharya, stresses a strict distinction between God (Vishnu) and the individual living beings (jivas). ... Bhakti (DevanÄgarÄ«: à¤à¤•à¥à¤¤à¤¿) is a word of Sanskrit origin meaning devotion and also the path of devotion itself, as in Bhakti-Yoga. ... This page deals with the Hindu concept of The Supreme Reality. ...

Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... The Dharmacakra (Sanskrit) or Dhammacakka (PÄli), Tibetan , Chinese fÄƒlÃºn æ³•è½®, Wheel of Dharma is an auspicious Buddhist symbol representing a Buddhas teaching of the path to enlightenment. ... The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahimsa. ... Nonviolence (or non-violence), whether held as a moral philosophy or only employed as an action strategy, rejects the use of physical violence in efforts to attain social, economic or political change. ... Time Saving Truth from Falsehood and Envy, FranÃ§ois Lemoyne, 1737 For other uses, see Truth (disambiguation). ...

Jain views of the meaning of life

Jainism is a religion originating in ancient India, its ethical system promotes self-discipline above all else. Through following the ascetic teachings of jina, a human achieves enlightenment (perfect knowledge). Jainism divides the universe into living and non-living beings. Only when the non-living become attached to the living does suffering result. Therefore, happiness is the result of self-conquest and freedom from external objects. The meaning of life may then be said to be to use of the physical body to achieve self-realization and bliss.^[74] Jain and Jaina redirect here. ... The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H) culture, also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... In Jainism, a Tirthankara (Fordmaker) is a human who achieved enlightenment, became a Jiva, and whose religious teachings have formed the canon of Jainism; although not Gods, statues of Tirthankaras are found in temples. ... This article is about modern humans. ...

Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or her actions and all living beings have an eternal soul, jīva. Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining Moksha. The Jain view of karma is that every action, every word, every thought produces, besides its visible, an invisible, transcendental effect on the soul. For other uses, see Soul (disambiguation). ... In Hinduism and Jainism, a jiva is the immortal essence of a living being, subject to maya. ... This article is about Jainism. ...

Jainism includes strict adherence to ahimsa (or ahinsā), a form of nonviolence that goes far beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice a lifestyle similar to Veganism due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude root vegetables from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat.^[75] The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes the Jain Vow of Ahimsa. ... Nonviolence (or non-violence), whether held as a moral philosophy or only employed as an action strategy, rejects the use of physical violence in efforts to attain social, economic or political change. ... A variety of vegetarian food ingredients Vegetarianism is the practice of a diet that excludes all animal flesh, including poultry, game, fish, shellfish or crustacea, and slaughter by-products. ... Vegan redirects here. ... Root vegetables are underground plant parts used as vegetables. ...

Buddhist views of the meaning of life

One of the central views in Buddhism is a nondual worldview, in which subject and object are the same, and the sense of doer-ship is illusionary. On this account, the meaning of life is to become enlightened as to the nature and oneness of the universe. According to the scriptures, the Buddha taught that in life there exists Dukkha, which is in essence sorrow/suffering, that is caused by desire and it can be brought to cessation by following the Noble Eightfold Path. A statue of the Sakyamuni Buddha in Tawang Gompa, India. ... A nondual philosophical or religious perspective or theory maintains that there is no fundamental distinction between mind and matter. ... Chinese Song Period Maha-prajna-paramita Sutra Page The texts can be categorized in a number of ways, but the most fundamental division is that between canonical and non-canonical texts. ... Siddhartha and Gautama redirect here. ... Dukkha (PÄli à¤¦à¥à¤•à¥à¤– ; according to grammatical tradition from Sanskrit uneasy, but according to Monier-Williams more likely a Prakritized form of unsteady, disquieted) is a central concept in Buddhism, the word roughly corresponding to a number of terms in English including sorrow, suffering, affliction, pain, anxiety, dissatisfaction, discomfort, anguish, stress... Taá¹‡hÄ (PÄli: à¤¤à¤£à¥à¤¹à¤¾) or Tá¹›á¹£á¹‡Ä (Sanskrit: à¤¤à¥ƒà¤·à¥à¤£à¤¾) means thirst, desire, craving, wanting, longing, yearning. Synonyms: æ„› Cn: Ã i; Jp: ai; Vi: Ã¡i Tibetan: The most basic of these meanings (the literal meaning) is thirst; however, in Buddhism it has a technical meaning that is much broader. ... The Dharma wheel, often used to represent the Noble Eightfold Path The Noble Eightfold Path (PÄli: Ariyo aá¹á¹haá¹…giko maggo; Sanskrit: Ä€rya á¹£á¹Äá¹…ga mÄrgaá¸¥; Chinese: å…«æ£é“, BÄzhÃ¨ngdÃ o; Japanese: å…«æ£é“, HasshÅdÅ, Thai: à¸à¸£à¸´à¸¢à¸¡à¸£à¸£à¸„à¹à¸›à¸”, Ariya Mugg Paad, Mongolian qutuÉ£tan-u naiman gesigÃ¼n-Ã¼ mÃ¶r) is, in...

This teaching is called the Catvāry Āryasatyāni (Pali: Cattāri Ariyasaccāni), or the "Four Noble Truths". Image File history File links Dharma_wheel. ... Image File history File links Dharma_wheel. ... The Dharmacakra (Sanskrit) or Dhammacakka (PÄli), Tibetan , Chinese fÄƒlÃºn æ³•è½®, Wheel of Dharma is an auspicious Buddhist symbol representing a Buddhas teaching of the path to enlightenment. ... The Dharma wheel, often used to represent the Noble Eightfold Path The Noble Eightfold Path (PÄli: Ariyo aá¹á¹haá¹…giko maggo; Sanskrit: Ä€rya á¹£á¹Äá¹…ga mÄrgaá¸¥; Chinese: å…«æ£é“, BÄzhÃ¨ngdÃ o; Japanese: å…«æ£é“, HasshÅdÅ, Thai: à¸à¸£à¸´à¸¢à¸¡à¸£à¸£à¸„à¹à¸›à¸”, Ariya Mugg Paad, Mongolian qutuÉ£tan-u naiman gesigÃ¼n-Ã¼ mÃ¶r) is, in... The Four Noble Truths (Pali: CattÄri ariyasaccÄni, Sanskrit: CatvÄri ÄryasatyÄni, Chinese: SÃ¬shÃ¨ngdÃ¬, Thai: à¸à¸£à¸´à¸¢à¸ªà¸±à¸ˆà¸ªà¸µà¹ˆ, Ariyasaj Sii) are one of the most fundamental Buddhist teachings. ...

Theravada Buddhism promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada (Pali), literally "Teaching of Analysis." This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith; however, the scriptures of the Theravadin tradition also emphasize heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of one's own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged. The Theravadin goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffering, according to the Four Noble Truths. This is attained in the achievement of Nibbana, or Unbinding which also ends the repeated cycle of birth, old age, sickness and death. Taá¹‡hÄ (PÄli: à¤¤à¤£à¥à¤¹à¤¾) or Tá¹›á¹£á¹‡Ä (Sanskrit: à¤¤à¥ƒà¤·à¥à¤£à¤¾) means thirst, desire, craving, wanting, longing, yearning. Synonyms: æ„› Cn: Ã i; Jp: ai; Vi: Ã¡i Tibetan: The most basic of these meanings (the literal meaning) is thirst; however, in Buddhism it has a technical meaning that is much broader. ... The Dharma wheel, often used to represent the Noble Eightfold Path The Noble Eightfold Path (PÄli: Ariyo aá¹á¹haá¹…giko maggo; Sanskrit: Ä€rya á¹£á¹Äá¹…ga mÄrgaá¸¥; Chinese: å…«æ£é“, BÄzhÃ¨ngdÃ o; Japanese: å…«æ£é“, HasshÅdÅ, Thai: à¸à¸£à¸´à¸¢à¸¡à¸£à¸£à¸„à¹à¸›à¸”, Ariya Mugg Paad, Mongolian qutuÉ£tan-u naiman gesigÃ¼n-Ã¼ mÃ¶r) is, in... Theravada (PÄli: theravÄda (cf Sanskrit: à¤¸à¥à¤¥à¤µà¤¿à¤°à¤µà¤¾à¤¦ sthaviravÄda); literally, the Teaching of the Elders, or the Ancient Teaching) is the oldest surviving Buddhist school, and for many centuries has been the predominant religion of Sri Lanka (about 70% of the population[1]) and most of continental Southeast Asia (Cambodia... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... PÄli is a Middle Indo-Aryan dialect or prakrit. ... The Four Noble Truths (Pali: CattÄri ariyasaccÄni, Sanskrit: CatvÄri ÄryasatyÄni, Chinese: SÃ¬shÃ¨ngdÃ¬, Thai: à¸à¸£à¸´à¸¢à¸ªà¸±à¸ˆà¸ªà¸µà¹ˆ, Ariyasaj Sii) are one of the most fundamental Buddhist teachings. ... The following article is about the term Nirvana in the context of Buddhism. ... This article is about the theological concept. ...

Mahayana Buddhist schools de-emphasize the traditional Theravada ideal of the release from individual Suffering (Dukkha) and attainment of Awakening (Nirvana). In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an eternal, immutable, inconceivable, omnipresent being. The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine are based around the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings, and the existence of the transcendent Buddha-nature, which is the eternal Buddha essence present, but hidden and unrecognised, in all living beings. Relief image of the bodhisattva Kuan Yin from Mt. ... Dukkha (PÄli à¤¦à¥à¤•à¥à¤– ; according to grammatical tradition from Sanskrit uneasy, but according to Monier-Williams more likely a Prakritized form of unsteady, disquieted) is a central concept in Buddhism, the word roughly corresponding to a number of terms in English including sorrow, suffering, affliction, pain, anxiety, dissatisfaction, discomfort, anguish, stress... Dukkha (PÄli à¤¦à¥à¤•à¥à¤– ; according to grammatical tradition from Sanskrit uneasy, but according to Monier-Williams more likely a Prakritized form of unsteady, disquieted) is a central concept in Buddhism, the word roughly corresponding to a number of terms in English including sorrow, suffering, affliction, pain, anxiety, dissatisfaction, discomfort, anguish, stress... This article is about the Buddhist concept. ... This article is about the Buddhist concept. ... Look up Liberation in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Buddha-nature (originally in Sanskrit, Buddha-dhatu - Buddha Element, Buddha-Principle) is a doctrine important for many schools of Mahayana Buddhism. ...

Sikh views of the meaning of life

The monastic Sikh religion founded by Guru Nanak Dev, and the term "sikh" means student, which denotes that followers will lead their lives forever learning. This system of religious philosophy and expression has been traditionally known as the Gurmat (literally the counsel of the gurus) or the Sikh Dharma. The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten Sikh gurus, or enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture entitled the Gurū Granth Sāhib, which includes selected works of many philosophers from diverse socio-economic and religious backgrounds. Sikhism (IPA: or ; Punjabi: , , IPA: ), founded on the teachings of Guru Nanak Dev and nine successive gurus in fifteenth century Northern India, is the fifth-largest religion in the world. ... Guru Nanak Dev[1] (Punjabi: , ) (Born in Nankana Sahib, Punjab, (now Pakistan) on 15th April 1469 â€“ 7 May 1539, Kartarpur, Punjab, India), was the founder of Sikhism, and the first of the eleven Sikh Gurus. ... For other uses, see Philosophy (disambiguation). ... GURMAT (gur-mat, mat, Sanskrit mati, i. ... Sikhism was established by ten Gurus, teachers or masters, over the period 1469 to 1708. ... The Shri Guru Granth Sahib (Punjabi: , ) is the 11th Guru of Sikhism, the holy book of Sikhism, which is revered as a living Guru by the Sikhs. ...

The Sikh Gurus tell us that salvation can be obtained by following various spiritual paths. Therefore, Sikhs do not have a monopoly on salvation: "The Lord dwells in every heart, and every heart has its own way to reach Him."^[76] Sikhs do not consider they have an "exclusive" right to salvation. Sikhs believe that all people are equally important before God.^[77] Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual values with the quest for knowledge, and they aim to promote a life of peace and equality but also of positive action.^[78] Waheguru (Punjabi: , or , ) means The Wonderful Lord in the Punjabi language. ...

A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non-anthropomorphic concept of God, to the extent that one can interpret God as the Universe itself (see pantheism). Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in each individual. While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings,^[79] Nanak described God as not wholly unknowable. God is omnipresent (sarav viāpak) in all creation and visible everywhere to the spiritually awakened. Nanak stressed that God must be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart", of a human being: devotees must meditate to progress towards enlightenment. Nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings.^[79] 7th millennium BC anthropomorphized rocks, with slits for eyes, found in modern-day Israel. ... For other uses, see Universe (disambiguation). ... Pantheism (Greek: Ï€Î¬Î½ ( pan ) = all and Î¸ÎµÏŒÏ‚ ( theos ) = God) literally means God is All and All is God. It is the view that everything is of an all-encompassing immanent abstract God; or that the universe, or nature, and God are equivalent. ... Guru Nanak Dev[1] (Punjabi: , ) (Born in Nankana Sahib, Punjab, (now Pakistan) on 15th April 1469 â€“ 7 May 1539, Kartarpur, Punjab, India), was the founder of Sikhism, and the first of the eleven Sikh Gurus. ... Sarav viapak (Punjabi: , ) means all pervading or omnipresent and is used in the Sikh holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib to refer to God. ... Meditation usually refers to a state of extreme relaxation and concentration, in which the body is generally at rest and the mind quieted of surface thoughts. ...

According to Sikhism, every creature has a soul. In death, the soul passes from one body to another until final liberation. The journey of the soul is governed by the karma of the deeds and actions we perform during our lives, and depending on the goodness or wrongdoings committed by a person in their life they will either be rewarded or punished in their next life. As the spirit of God is found in all life and matter, a soul can be passed onto other life forms, such as plants and insects - not just human bodies. A person who has evolved to achieve spiritual perfection in his lifetimes attains salvation – union with God and liberation from rebirth in the material world. For other uses, see Soul (disambiguation). ... Look up Liberation in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For other uses, see Karma (disambiguation). ... This article is about the theological concept. ...

Image File history File links Yin_yang. ... Image File history File links Yin_yang. ... A commonly used version of the Taijitu The Taijitu of Zhou Dun-yi. ... Philosophical topics Unity of opposites is the central category of dialectics, and it is viewed sometimes as a metaphysical concept, a philosophical concept or a scientific concept. ... This article is about a concept in Taoism. ...

East Asian religions and philosophy

A traditional representation of The Vinegar Tasters, an allegorical image representing Buddhists, Confucianists and Taoists. ...

Taoist views of the meaning of life

The Taoists cosmogony emphasizes the need for all sentient beings and all man to return to the primordial or to rejoin with the Oneness of the Universe by way of self-correction and self realization. It is the objective for all adherents to understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth. For other uses of the words tao and dao, see Dao (disambiguation). ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Within the theology of Taoism, all man were originally a being called yuanling from Taiji and Tao, the meaning in life for the adherents is to realise the temporal nature of the existence, and all adherents are expected to practise, hone and conduct their mortal lives by way of Xiuzhen and Xiushen, as a preparation for the spiritual transcendence thereafter. "Only introspection can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living...the simple answer is here within ourselves."^[80] This article is about a concept in Taoism. ... This article is about the Chinese character and the philosophy it represents. ...

Image File history File links Torii. ... Image File history File links Torii. ... A famous floating torii at Itsukushima Shrine Multiple torii at Fushimi Inari-taisha, Kyoto Torii are widespread in Japan, to the extent that modern architecture sometimes emulates their form, such as at Kanazawa Station. ...

Shinto views of the meaning of life

Shinto wants life to live, not to die. Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self-development. Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged forever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving its objective personality in its highest forms. The presence of evil in the world, as conceived by Shinto, does not stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity responsibility for being able to relieve human suffering while refusing to do so. The sufferings of life are the sufferings of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective world.^[27] Shinto ) is the native religion of Japan and was once its state religion. ...

Confucian views of the meaning of life

Confucianism recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education. Because mankind is driven by both positive and negative influences, Confucianists see a goal in achieving the good nature through strong relationships and reasoning as well as minimizing the negative energy. This emphasis on normal living is seen in the Confucianist scholar Wei-Ming's quote, "we can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence."^[81] A Confucian temple in Wuwei, Peoples Republic of China. ...

Non-Abrahamic Iranian religions and philosophy

For the religion in the country of Iran, see Religion in Iran The cultural continent of Greater Iran. ... Iranian philosophy can be traced back as far as to Old Iranian philosophical traditions and thoughts which originated in ancient Indo-Iranian roots and were considerably influenced by Zarathustras teachings. ...

Zoroastrian views of the meaning of life

Founded by Zoroaster, the Zoroastrianism message was that humans are responsible for the moral choices they make in a world of both good and evil options. For those who chose good actions, a blissful afterlife is promised, as well as a return to earth to continue life in a physical form. Those who chose evil actions would be doomed to a hellish afterlife.^[82] Zoroaster (Greek Î–Ï‰ÏÎ¿Î¬ÏƒÏ„ÏÎ·Ï‚, ZÅroastrÄ“s) or Zarathustra (Avestan: ZaraÎ¸uÅ¡tra), also referred to as Zartosht (Persian: ; Kurdish: ), was an ancient Iranian prophet and religious poet. ... Zoroastrianism is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings ascribed to the prophet Zoroaster (Zarathustra, Zartosht). ...

Scientific approaches to the meaning of life

The primary aim of the scientific approach to the meaning of life is to describe the empirical facts about human existence. Claims that empirical science can shed light on issues such as the meaning of life are highly disputed within the scientific and philosophy-of-science communities, and have been from the very beginning of science. In spite of this, science has provided many theories about the origin of life, in the areas of abiogenesis (for the origins of biological life) and cosmogony (for the origins of the universe). Both of these areas are quite hypothetical; cosmogony because no existing physical model can accurately describe the very early universe (the instant of the Big Bang),^[83] and abiogenesis because the environment of the young earth is still not accurately known, and even though the conditions and chemical processes that may have been present then have been reproduced in a laboratory, to produce organic molecules, those very conditions are still under debate.^[84]^[85]^[86] A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. ... A central concept in science and the scientific method is that all evidence must be empirical, or empirically based, that is, dependent on evidence or consequences that are observable by the senses. ... Philosophy of science is the study of assumptions, foundations, and implications of science, especially in the natural sciences and social sciences. ... For the definition, see Life. ... This article focuses on the history of thought regarding abiogenesis (the spontaneous generation of life from non-living sources). ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... For other uses, see Big Bang (disambiguation). ...

The true nature and origin of consciousness and the mind itself are also widely debated in science, and more specifically in relation to the hard problem of consciousness. Various theories relating to consciousness have been postulated,^[87]^[88] including hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime,^[89]^[90] electromagnetic theories of consciousness,^[91]^[90]^[92] the Multiple Drafts Model,^[93]^[94]^[95]^[96]^[97] the holonomic brain theory,^[98] Orch-OR^[99] and the many-minds interpretation.^[100] Consciousness is a quality of the mind generally regarded to comprise qualities such as subjectivity, self-awareness, sentience, sapience, and the ability to perceive the relationship between oneself and ones environment. ... For other uses, see Mind (disambiguation). ... Unsolved problems in cognitive science: How is it possible to resolve the Hard Problem? The term hard problem of consciousness, coined by David Chalmers[1][2], refers to the hard problem of explaining why we have qualitative phenomenal experiences. ... Space-time theories of consciousness relate the geometrical features of conscious experience, such as viewing things in space-time at a point, to the geometrical properties of the universe itself. ... The electromagnetic theory of consciousness is a theory that says the electromagnetic field generated by the brain (measurable by EEGs) is the actual carrier of conscious experience. ... Daniel Dennetts Multiple Drafts Theory or Model of Consciousness is a physical theory of consciousness based upon the proposal that the brain acts as an information processor. ... The holonomic brain theory, originated by Karl Pribram and initially developed in collaboration with David Bohm, models cognitive function as being guided by a matrix of neurological wave interference patterns situated temporally between holographic Gestalt perception and discrete, affective, quantum vectors derived from reward anticipation potentials. ... Orch OR (â€œOrchestrated Objective Reductionâ€) is a theory of consciousness put forth in the mid-1990s by British theoretical physicist Sir Roger Penrose and American anesthesiologist Stuart Hameroff. ... The many-minds interpretation of quantum mechanics extends the many-worlds interpretation by proposing that the distinction between worlds should be made at the level of the mind of an individual observer. ...

Origin and nature of biological life

The exact mechanisms by which biological life could have originated from inanimate matter are unknown, but multiple theories have been posited, including the contemporary RNA world hypothesis. Some scientists claim life began on Earth as a primeval soup, while others believe that a more "complete" form of life arrived on our planet through panspermia. The initial mechanisms by which primitive cells were formed notwithstanding, almost all scientific origin theories are contingent upon the evolution of traits through mutation and natural selection.^[101] Near the end of the 20th century, equipped with insights from the gene-centered view of evolution, biologists such as George C. Williams, Richard Dawkins and David Haig, to name a few, have suggested that insofar as there may be a primary function to life, it may be the survival of genes; following this approach, success isn't measured in terms of the survival of species, but rather in terms of the successful replication of genes.^[102] For the definition, see Life. ... In the physical sciences, non-life is an umbrella term set to distinguish or characterize those inanimate chemical precursors found in the primeval soup of the early years of planetary evolution from which life, theoretically, evolved or came into existence. ... RNA with its nitrogenous bases to the left and DNA to the right. ... This article is about Earth as a planet. ... This page may meet Wikipedias criteria for speedy deletion. ... Panspermia is a proven process (based on the principles of Biology, Microbiology, Physics, Chemistry, Astronomy, and assumption that life existed already in the universe) that explains how all life in the universe and/or solar system comes from a seed of life. ... This article is about evolution in biology. ... For linguistic mutation, see Apophony. ... For other uses, see Natural selection (disambiguation). ... The gene-centered view of evolution, gene selection theory or selfish gene theory holds that natural selection acts through differential survival of competing genes, increasing the frequency of those alleles whose phenotypic effects successfully promote their own propagation. ... George Williams Professor George Christopher Williams (b. ... Clinton Richard Dawkins, FRS (born March 26, 1941) is a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist and popular science writer who holds the Charles Simonyi Chair for the Public Understanding of Science at the University of Oxford. ... David Haig, is an Australian evolutionary biologist and geneticist, associate professor in Harvard Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology. ... This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ...

In addition to naturalistic arguments for the origin of life on Earth, some philosophers and theologians have postulated that a "watchmaker" or intelligent designer guided its development. This teleological argument has been rejected by most scientists, including Richard Dawkins, who has often affirmed that teleology is an illusion and does not exist, like in his Discovery Science video 'The Big Question: Why are we here?'^[103] and in books such as The Blind Watchmaker^[104] and The God Delusion.^[105]^[106]^[107] Metaphysical naturalism is any worldview in which nature is all there is and all things supernatural (which stipulatively includes as well as spirits and souls, non-natural values, and universals as they are commonly conceived) do not exist. ... A teleological argument, or argument from design, is an argument for the existence of God or a creator based on perceived evidence of order, purpose, design and/or direction in nature. ... For the scientific evidence supporting evolution, see Evidence of evolution. ... Clinton Richard Dawkins, FRS (born March 26, 1941) is a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist and popular science writer who holds the Charles Simonyi Chair for the Public Understanding of Science at the University of Oxford. ... Teleology (Greek: telos: end, purpose) is the philosophical study of design, purpose, directive principle, or finality in nature or human creations. ... Cover illustration by the zoologist Desmond Morris The Blind Watchmaker is a 1986 book by Richard Dawkins in which he presents an explanation of, and argument for, the theory of evolution by means of natural selection. ... The God Delusion is a book by British biologist Richard Dawkins, Professor for the Public Understanding of Science at the University of Oxford. ...

Significance and value of life

Science may or may not be able to tell us what is most valuable in life in a philosophical sense, but some studies bear on related questions: Researchers in "positive psychology" (and earlier and less rigorously in humanistic psychology) study factors that lead to satisfaction in our lives. Social psychology examines factors that lead to infants thriving or failing to thrive, and in other areas of psychology questions of motivation, preference, and what people value. Economists have learned a great deal about what is valued in the marketplace; and sociology examines value at a social level using theoretical constructs such as value theory, norms, anomie, etc. Positive psychology is a relatively young branch of psychology that studies the strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive. ... Humanistic psychology is a school of psychology that emerged in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis. ... This page is a candidate to be moved to Wiktionary. ... Social psychology is the scientific study of how peoples thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others (Allport, 1985). ... Psychological science redirects here. ... Face-to-face trading interactions on the New York Stock Exchange trading floor. ... In general, the economic value of something is how much a product or service is worth to someone relative to other things (often measured in money). ... Sociology (from Latin: socius, companion; and the suffix -ology, the study of, from Greek Î»ÏŒÎ³Î¿Ï‚, lÃ³gos, knowledge [1]) is the systematic and scientific study of society, including patterns of social relationships, social action, and culture[2]. Areas studied in sociology can range from the analysis of brief contacts between anonymous... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Popular views of the purpose of life

"What is the meaning of life?" is a question many people ask themselves at some point during their lives, most in the context "What is the purpose of life?"^[8] Here are some of the life goals people choose, and some of their beliefs on what the purpose of life is:

...to have life

The Fountain of Eternal Life in Cleveland, Ohio Immortality (or eternal life) is the concept of living in physical or spiritual form for an infinite length of time, or in a state of timelessness. ... Life extension refers to an increase in maximum or average lifespan, especially in humans, by slowing down or reversing the processes of aging. ... Indefinite lifespan is a term used in the life extension movement to refer to the longevity of humans (and other lifeforms) under conditions in which aging can be effectively and completely prevented and treated. ...

...to seek wisdom and knowledge

For the apocryphal book of the Bible, see Book of Wisdom. ... For other uses, see Knowledge (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Mind (disambiguation). ... Suffering, or pain in this sense,[1] is a basic affective experience of unpleasantness and aversion associated with harm or threat of harm in an individual. ... Look up ignorance in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For other uses, see Happiness (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Fear (disambiguation). ... A lesson is a structured period of time where learning is intended to occur. ...

...to do good, to do the right thing

...to pursue a certain form of fulfillment, perfection or success

For beauty as a characteristic of a persons appearance, see Physical attractiveness. ...

...to love, to feel, to feel joy in living

One should not search for the meaning of life

Life has no meaning

Humorous, aesthetic and entertainment media treatments

The mystery of life and its meaning is an often recurring subject in popular culture, featured in entertainment media and various forms of art, and more specifically in music, literature and visual arts, for example: Popular culture (or pop culture) is the widespread cultural elements in any given society that are perpetuated through that societys vernacular language or lingua franca. ... Popular press redirects here; note that the University of Wisconsin Press publishes under the imprint The Popular Press. Mass media is a term used to denote a section of the media specifically envisioned and designed to reach a very large audience such as the population of a nation state. ... This article is about Arts as a group of disciplines. ... This article is about the philosophical concept of Art. ... For other uses, see Music (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Literature (disambiguation). ... The Mona Lisa is one of the most recognizable artistic paintings in the Western world. ...

Several more specific references to the meaning of life in popular culture

Image File history File links Answer_to_Life. ... Image File history File links Answer_to_Life. ... Douglas NoÃ«l Adams (11 March 1952 â€“ 11 May 2001) was an English author, comic radio dramatist, and musician. ... The cover of the first novel in the Hitchhikers series, from a late 1990s printing. ... The Ultimate Answer to Life, The Universe, and Everything The 42 Puzzle, as it appeared in The Illustrated Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy The Answer to Life, the Universe, and Everything has a numeric solution in Douglas Adams series The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy. ... Look up forty-two in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For other uses, see Supercomputer (disambiguation). ... The following is a list of minor characters in the various versions of The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy, by Douglas Adams. ... Spoiler warning: See also Answer to Life, the Universe, and Everything. ... This article is about Earth as a planet. ... For other uses, see Galaxy (disambiguation). ... Bypass may refer to: Bypass (computing), in computing, circumventing security features in hacking, or taking a different approach to an issue in troubleshooting Bypass (effect), in effects units, a switch that allows sound processing to be turned off to get a dry, unprocessed sound output Bypass (road), road or highway... Life, the Universe and Everything (1982, ISBN 0-345-39182-9) is the third book in the five-volume Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy science fiction series by Douglas Adams. ... See also: Unconscious mind. ... Information Species Human Gender Male Age 30 (approx. ... The following is a list of minor characters in the various versions of The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy, by Douglas Adams. ... The following is a list of minor characters in the various versions of The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy, by Douglas Adams. ... Information Species Android Gender Male Age Thirty-seven times older than the Universe itself Occupation Servant Created by Douglas Adams In the BBC TV series, the marketing division of the Sirius Cybernetics Corporation defines a robot [like Marvin] as Your plastic pal whos fun to be with. Marvins... Monty Pythons The Meaning of Life is a musical film comedy made in 1983 by the Monty Python comedy team. ... Michael Edward Palin, CBE (born 5 May 1943) is an English comedian, actor, writer and television presenter best known for being one of the members of the comedy group Monty Python and for his travel documentaries. ... Simpsons redirects here. ... Homer the Heretic is the third episode of The Simpsons fourth season. ... The Matrix Revolutions is the third and final film in The Matrix trilogy. ... Movie poster for The Matrix Revolutions, featuring the various copies of Agent Smith. ... Look up neo in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Red dwarfs constitute the majority of all stars According to the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, a red dwarf star is a small and relatively cool star, of the main sequence, either late K or M spectral type. ... The Inquisitor was the second epsiode to air in the fifth series of Red Dwarf. ... Character descriptions and casting details for the Red Dwarf BBC sitcom and series of novels by Rob Grant and Doug Naylor. ... For other uses, see Peanut (disambiguation). ... Bill and Teds Bogus Journey is a 1991 American comedy science fiction film, the sequel to Bill & Teds Excellent Adventure. ... According to tradition, Peter was crucified upside-down, as shown in this painting by Caravaggio. ... The Internet Movie Database (IMDb) is an online database of information about movies, actors, television shows, production crew personnel, and video games. ... Every Rose Has Its Thorn is a power ballad/rock song by Poison. ... Poison is an American glam metal band which originally achieved popular success in the late 1980s and early 1990s. ... For similarly-named works, see Alchemist. ... City Slickers is a 1991 movie comedy starring Billy Crystal, Bruno Kirby, Daniel Stern, Helen Slater, and Jack Palance. ... The Four Noble Truths (Pali: CattÄri ariyasaccÄni, Sanskrit: CatvÄri ÄryasatyÄni, Chinese: SÃ¬shÃ¨ngdÃ¬, Thai: à¸à¸£à¸´à¸¢à¸ªà¸±à¸ˆà¸ªà¸µà¹ˆ, Ariyasaj Sii) are one of the most fundamental Buddhist teachings. ... The Noble Eightfold Path, according to Buddhism and as taught by Gautama Buddha, is the way to the cessation of suffering, the fourth part of the Four Noble Truths. ... A Man Without a Country is a collection of essays published in 2005 by the author Kurt Vonnegut. ... Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. ... For the breakfast cereal, see Wheaties. ... Kilgore Trout is a fictional character created by author Kurt Vonnegut. ... Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (Russian: , IPA: ) was a Russian short story writer and playwright. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... For other uses, see Hamlet (disambiguation). ... Hamlet and Ophelia, by Dante Gabriel Rossetti Prince Hamlet is the main character in Shakespeares tragedy Hamlet. ... For the Ernst Lubitsch film, see To Be or Not to Be (1942 film). ... Dune is a science fiction novel written by Frank Herbert and published in 1965. ... Frank Patrick Herbert (October 8, 1920 â€“ February 11, 1986) was a critically acclaimed and commercially successful American science fiction author. ... Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes is a stealth-based game that was developed by Silicon Knights and Konami for the GameCube and released in March 2004. ... Solid Snake ) is the predominant anti-hero protagonist of the Metal Gear series. ...

See also

Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wiktionary (a portmanteau of wiki and dictionary) is a multilingual, Web-based project to create a free content dictionary, available in over 151 languages. ... Image File history File links Portal. ... Image File history File links Portal. ... For other uses, see: information entropy (in information theory) and entropy (disambiguation). ... Over the last century, much writing and research has been devoted to the relationship between the thermodynamic quantity entropy and the evolution of life. ... Self-organization refers to a process in which the internal organization of a system, normally an open system, increases automatically without being guided or managed by an outside source. ... This article is about evolution in biology. ... Evolutionary psychology (abbreviated EP) is a theoretical approach to psychology that attempts to explain mental and psychological traitsâ€”such as memory, perception, or languageâ€”as adaptations, i. ... The gene-centered view of evolution, gene selection theory or selfish gene theory holds that natural selection acts through differential survival of competing genes, increasing the frequency of those alleles whose phenotypic effects successfully promote their own propagation. ... This article is about life in general. ... This article focuses on the history of thought regarding abiogenesis (the spontaneous generation of life from non-living sources). ... This article is about logos (logoi) in ancient Greek philosophy, mathematics, rhetoric, Theophilosophy, and Christianity. ... This article is about the physical universe. ... Metaphysical naturalism is any worldview in which nature is all there is and all things supernatural (which stipulatively includes as well as spirits and souls, non-natural values, and universals as they are commonly conceived) do not exist. ... Teleology (Greek: telos: end, purpose) is the philosophical study of design, purpose, directive principle, or finality in nature or human creations. ... For other uses, see Reality (disambiguation). ... The Ancient and Medieval cosmos as depicted in Peter Apians Cosmographia (Antwerp, 1539). ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... For other uses, see Multiverse (disambiguation). ... In physical cosmology, omniverse is a term used to differentiate a limited number of universes from all existent universes. ... Simulated reality is the idea that reality could be simulated â€” often computer-simulated â€” to a degree indistinguishable from true reality. ... For other uses, see Universe (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Big Bang (disambiguation). ... This article is about the study of the past in human terms. ... Semiotics, semiotic studies, or semiology is the study of signs and symbols, both individually and grouped into sign systems. ... The phrase culture of life is a rhetorical term arising from Roman Catholic doctrine, used frequently by Republicans in United States politics. ... Bioethics is the ethics of biological science and medicine. ... This article is about the social movement. ... Issues of discussion Pro-choice describes the political and ethical view that a woman should have complete control over her fertility and pregnancy. ... This article is about the economic and philosophical concept. ... The term right to life is a political term used in controversies over various issues that involve the taking of a life (or what is perceived to be a life). ... For the 1987 film, see Right to Die (film) The term right to die refers to various issues around the death of an individual when that person could continue to live with the aid of life support, or in a diminished or enfeebled capacity. ... The value of life (or price of life) is an economic or moral value assigned to life in general, or to specific living organisms. ... For other uses, see Destiny (disambiguation). ... Intentional living is a term used in a variety of contexts including religious, ethical and values-oriented contexts as well as coaching, personal transformation, and leadership training practices and programs. ... Life extension refers to an increase in maximum or average lifespan, especially in humans, by slowing down or reversing the processes of aging. ... Simple living (or voluntary simplicity) is a lifestyle individuals may pursue for a variety of motivations, such as spirituality, health, or ecology. ... Sustainable living might best be defined as a lifestyle that could, hypothetically, be sustained unmodified for many generations without exhausting any natural resources. ... An ideology is an organized collection of ideas. ... The Perennial Philosophy (Latin philosophia perennis) is the idea that a universal set of truths common to all people and cultures exists. ... A world view (or worldview) is a term calqued from the German word Weltanschauung ( ) Welt is the German word for world, and Anschauung is the German word for view or outlook. It is a concept fundamental to German philosophy and epistemology and refers to a wide world perception. ...

References

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^ ^a ^b Bernard Reginster (2006). The Affirmation of Life: Nietzsche on Overcoming Nihilism. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674021991.
^ Julian Young (2003). The Death of God and the Meaning of Life. Routledge. ISBN 0415307902.
^ ^a ^b Jonathan Westphal (1998). Philosophical Propositions: An Introduction to Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 0415170532.
^ ^a ^b ^c Matthew Kelly (2005). The Rhythm of Life: Living Every Day with Passion and Purpose. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0743265106.
^ Robert Nozick (1981). Philosophical Explanations. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0674664795.
^ ^a ^b Albert Jewell (2003). Ageing, Spirituality and Well-Being. Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 184310167X.
^ ^a ^b ^c Question of the Month: What Is The Meaning Of Life?. Philosophy Now. Issue 59. Retrieved on 2007-07-26.
^ ^a ^b Glenn Yeffeth (2005). The Anthology at the End of the Universe: Leading Science Fiction Authors on Douglas Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. BenBella Books, Inc. ISBN 1932100563.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s David Seaman (2005). The Real Meaning of Life. New World Library. ISBN 1577315146.
^ Ronald F. Thiemann; William Carl Placher (1998). Why Are We Here?: Everyday Questions and the Christian Life. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 1563382369.
^ Dennis Marcellino (1996). Why Are We Here?: The Scientific Answer to this Age-old Question (that you don't need to be a scientist to understand). Lighthouse Pub. ISBN 0945272103.
^ F. Homer Curtiss (2003). Why Are We Here. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0766138992.
^ ^a ^b William B. Badke (2005). The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Meaning of Everything. Kregel Publications. ISBN 0825420695.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hsuan Hua (2003). Words of Wisdom: Beginning Buddhism. Dharma Realm Buddhist Association. ISBN 0881393029.
^ ^a ^b Paul Davies (March 2000). The Fifth Miracle: The Search for the Origin and Meaning of Life. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-86309-X. Retrieved on 2007-07-26.
^ ^a ^b ^c Charles Christiansen; Carolyn Manville Baum; Julie Bass-Haugen (2005). Occupational Therapy: Performance, Participation, and Well-Being. SLACK Incorporated, 680. ISBN 1556425309.
^ Rick Warren (2002). The Purpose Driven Life: What on Earth Am I Here For?. Zondervan. ISBN 0310255252.
^ ^a ^b Jiddu Krishnamurti (2001). What Are You Doing With Your Life?. Krishnamurti Foundation of America. ISBN 188800424X.
^ Puolimatka, Tapio; Airaksinen, Timo (2002). Education and the Meaning of Life (PDF). Philosophy of Education. University of Helsinki. Retrieved on 2007-07-26.
^ Stan Van Hooft (2004). Life, Death, and Subjectivity: Moral Sources in Bioethics. Rodopi, 247. ISBN 9042019123.
^ Russ Shafer-Landau; Terence Cuneo (2007). Foundations of Ethics: An Anthology. Blackwell Publishing, 520. ISBN 1405129514.
^ Wohlgennant, Rudolph. (1981). "Has the Question about the Meaning of Life any Meaning?" (Chapter 4). In E. Morscher, ed., Philosophie als Wissenschaft.
^ Richard Taylor (January 1970). Good and Evil. Macmillan Publishing Company, "The Meaning of Life" (Chapter 5). ISBN 0026166909.
^ McNaughton, David (August 1988). Moral Vision: An Introduction to Ethics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, "Moral Freedom and the Meaning of Life" (Section 1.5). ISBN 0631159452.
^ Leo Tolstoy (2007). On Life and Essays on Religion. READ BOOKS, 448. ISBN 1406742090.
^ ^a ^b J. W. T. Mason (2002). The Meaning of Shinto. Trafford Publishing, 175. ISBN 1412245516.
^ Theresa King (1992). The Spiral Path: Explorations in Women's Spirituality. Yes International Publishers. ISBN 0936663138.
^ Richard H. Jones (2004). Mysticism and Morality: A New Look at Old Questions. Lexington Books, 432. ISBN 0739107844.
^ Kidd, I., "Cynicism," in The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy. (ed. Urmson and Rée), Routledge. (2005)
^ Long, A. A., "The Socratic Tradition: Diogenes, Crates, and Hellenistic Ethics," in The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy. (ed. Branham and Goulet-Cazé), University of California Press, (1996).
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^ "The Cyrenaics and the Origin of Hedonism." Hedonism.org. BLTC. 4 Nov. 2007 <http://www.hedonism.org>.
^ Epicurus, "Letter to Menoeceus", contained in Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book X
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Bertrand Russell (1946). A History of Western Philosophy, New York: Simon and Schuster; London: George Allen and Unwin
^ ^a ^b Jérôme Bindé (2004). The Future Of Values: 21st-Century Talks. Berghahn Books. ISBN 1571814426.
^ William James (1909). The Meaning of Truth. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-138-6.
^ Walter Robert Corti (1976). The Philosophy of William James. Meiner Verlag. ISBN 3787303529.
^ Rosen, Frederick (2003). Classical Utilitarianism from Hume to Mill. Routledge, pg. 28. ISBN 0415220947 "It was Hume and Bentham who then reasserted most strongly the Epicurean doctrine concerning utility as the basis of justice."
^ Mill, John Stuart. 'On Liberty', ed. Himmelfarb. Penguin Classics, 1974, Ed.'s introduction, p.11.
^ John Stuart Mill (1863). Utilitarianism.
^ Dale Jacquette (1996). Schopenhauer, Philosophy, and the Arts. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521473888.
^ Durno Murray (1999). Nietzsche's Affirmative Morality. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3110166011.
^ Amy Laura Hall (2002). Kierkegaard and the Treachery of Love. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521893119.
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^ ^a ^b ^c Humanist Manifesto II [2]. American Humanist Association (1973). Retrieved on 2007-08-01.
^ ^a ^b ^c Humanist Manifesto III [3]. American Humanist Association (2003). Retrieved on 2007-08-01.
^ A Secular Humanist Declaration [4]. Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism (now the Council for Secular Humanism) (1980). Retrieved on 2007-08-01.
^ Nick Bostrom (2005). Transhumanist Values. Oxford University. Retrieved on 2007-07-28.
^ Bertrand Russell (1961). Science and Ethics
^ Dan Cohn-Sherbok (2003). Judaism: History, Belief, and Practice. Routledge, 512. ISBN 0415236614.
^ Abraham Joshua Heschel (2005). Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN 0826408028.
^ Wilfred Shuchat (2006). The Garden of Eden & the Struggle to Be Human: According to the Midrash Rabbah. Devora Publishing, 584. ISBN 1932687319.
^ Randolph L. Braham (1983). Contemporary Views on the Holocaust. Springer. ISBN 089838141X.
^ The Westminster Shorter Catechism. Retrieved on 2008-03-21.
^ Ian Markham; İbrahim Özdemir (2005). Globalization, Ethics and Islam: The Case of Bediuzzaman Said Nursi. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.. ISBN 0754650154.
^ ^a ^b Abdullah Yusuf Ali (2000). The Holy Qur'an. Wordsworth Editions. ISBN 1853267821.
^ "Bahaism." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, vol. Fourth Edition, Houghton Mifflin Company, 2007, <http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/bahaism>
^ Bahá'u'lláh (1873). The Kitáb-i-Aqdas: The Most Holy Book [5]. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. ISBN 0853989990.
^ Bahá'u'lláh (1862). The Kitáb-i-Íqán: The Book of Certitude [6]. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. ISBN 1931847088.
^ Bahá'u'lláh [1856-63] (1991). The Seven Valleys and the Four Valleys [7]. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. ISBN 0-87743-227-9.
^ Bahá'u'lláh (2002). Gems of Divine Mysteries [8]. Haifa, Israel: Bahá'í World Centre. ISBN 0-85398-975-3.
^ Simon Weightman (1998), "Hinduism", in Hinnells, John (Ed.), The new Penguin handbook of living religions, Penguin books, ISBN 0-140-51480-5
^ ^a ^b Monier Monier-Williams (1974), Brahmanism and Hinduism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus, Adamant Media Corporation, ISBN 1421265311, <http://books.google.com/books?id=U5IBXA4UpT0C&dq=isbn:1421265311>. Retrieved on 2007-07-08
^ For dharma, artha, and kama as "brahmanic householder values" see: Flood (1996), p. 17.
^ For the Dharma Śāstras as discussing the "four main goals of life" (dharma, artha, kāma, and moksha) see: Hopkins, p. 78.
^ For definition of the term पुरुष-अर्थ (puruṣa-artha) as "any of the four principal objects of human life, i.e. धर्म, अर्थ, काम, and मोक्ष" see: Apte, p. 626, middle column, compound #1.
^ Bhaskarananda, Swami (1994), written at Seattle, WA, The Essentials of Hinduism: a comprehensive overview of the world's oldest religion, Viveka Press, ISBN 1-884852-02-5
^ Vivekananda, Swami (1987), written at Calcutta, Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Advaita Ashrama, ISBN 81-85301-75-1
^ ^a ^b Werner, Karel (1994), "Hinduism", written at Richmond, Surrey, in Hinnells, John (Ed.), A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism, Curzon Press, ISBN 0-7007-0279-2
^ See also the Vedic statement "ayam ātmā brahma" (This Atman is Brahman).
^ Richard Schechner (2002). Performance Studies: An Introduction. Routledge, 304. ISBN 0415146208.
^ Thomas Merton (1995). Thoughts on the East. New Directions Publishing, 84. ISBN 0811212939.
^ Shah, Natubhai. Jainism: The World of Conquerors. Sussex Academic Press, 1998.
^ Viren, Jain. RE Today. Retrieved on 2007-06-14.
^ Daljeet Singh (1971). Guru Tegh Bahadur. Language Dept., Punjab, 195.
^ Jon Mayled (2002). Modern World Religions: Sikhism. Harcourt Heinemann, 62. ISBN 0435336266.
^ The Sikh Coalition
^ ^a ^b Parrinder, Geoffrey (1971). World Religions: From Ancient History to the Present. United States: Hamlyn Publishing Group Limited, 252. ISBN 0-87196-129-6.
^ Ming-Dao Deng (1990). Scholar Warrior: An Introduction to the Tao in Everyday Life. HarperCollins.
^ Tu, Wei-Ming. Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1985.
^ Muesse, Mark. Religions of the Axial Age: An Approach to the World's Religions. Lectures at Rhodes College.
^ Brian Greene (2004). The Fabric of the Cosmos. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 272. ISBN 0375727205.
^ Noam Lahav (1998). Biogenesis: Theories of Life's Origin. Oxford University Press US, 368. ISBN 0195117557.
^ André Brack (1998). The Molecular Origins of Life: Assembling Pieces of the Puzzle. Cambridge University Press, 428. ISBN 0521564751.
^ Günter Wächtershäuser (25 Aug 2000). "Origin of Life: Life as We Don't Know It", Science, 289 (5483) pp. 1307-1308.
^ Paul M. Churchland (1989). A Neurocomputational Perspective: The Nature of Mind and the Structure of Science. MIT Press, 321. ISBN 0262531062.
^ Harvey Whitehouse (2001). The Debated Mind: Evolutionary Psychology Versus Ethnography. Berg Publishers, 224. ISBN 1859734278.
^ John D. Barrow; Paul C. W. Davies; Charles L. Harper (2004). Science and Ultimate Reality: Quantum Theory, Cosmology, and Complexity. Cambridge University Press, 742. ISBN 052183113X.
^ ^a ^b Mae-Wan Ho (1998). The Rainbow and the Worm: The Physics of Organisms. World Scientific, 304. ISBN 9810234279.
^ J. McFadden (2002) "Synchronous Firing and Its Influence on the Brain's Electromagnetic Field: Evidence for an Electromagnetic Field Theory of Consciousness". Journal of Consciousness Studies 9 (4) pp. 23-50.
^ R. Buccheri; V. Di Gesù; Metod Saniga (2000). Studies on the Structure of Time: From Physics to Psycho(patho)logy. Springer, 420. ISBN 030646439X.
^ Daniel Clement Dennett (1991). Consciousness Explained. Little, Brown and Co., 511. ISBN 0316180661.
^ Ned Joel Block (2007). Consciousness, Function, and Representation. MIT Press, 636. ISBN 0262026031.
^ Andrew Brook; Kathleen Akins (2005). Cognition and the Brain: The Philosophy and Neuroscience Movement. Cambridge University Press, 440. ISBN 0521836425.
^ Stanislas Dehaene (2001). The Cognitive Neuroscience of Consciousness. MIT Press, 249. ISBN 0262541319.
^ Jeffrey Alan Gray (2004). Consciousness: Creeping Up on the Hard Problem. Oxford University Press, 360. ISBN 0198520905.
^ Mohsen Kermanshahi (May 2007). Universal Theory: A Model for the Theory of Everything. Universal Publishers, 268. ISBN 1581129432.
^ Alexandra Bruce (2005). Beyond the Bleep: The Definitive Unauthorized Guide to What the Bleep Do We Know!?. The Disinformation Company, 288. ISBN 1932857222.
^ David Bohm; Basil J. Hiley (1993). The Undivided Universe: An Ontological Interpretation of Quantum Theory. Routledge, 397. ISBN 0415065887.
^ Charles Darwin (1859). On the Origin of Species.
^ Richard Dawkins (1976). The Selfish Gene. Oxford University Press, 224. ISBN 019857519X.
^ "Why are we here?". The Big Questions. 2007-11-25. No. 10, season 1.
^ Richard Dawkins (1986). The Blind Watchmaker. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-31570-3.
^ Richard Dawkins (2006). The God Delusion. Bantam Books. ISBN 0-618-68000-4.
^ Alister E. McGrath (2007). The Dawkins Delusion?. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. ISBN 978-0-281-05927-0.
^ Alister E. McGrath (2005). Dawkins' God: Genes, Memes, and the Meaning of Life. Blackwell Publishing, 202. ISBN 140512539X.
^ Lopez, Mike (September 22, 1999). Episode III: Relativism? A Jedi craves not these things. The Michigan Daily. Retrieved on 2007-07-26.
^ Lovatt, Stephen C. (2007). New Skins for Old Wine. Universal Publishers, The Meaning of Life. ISBN 1581129602.
^ ^a ^b Raymond Kurzweil; Terry Grossman (2004). Fantastic Voyage: Live Long Enough to Live Forever [9]. Holtzbrinck Publishers. ISBN 1-57954-954-3.
^ Bryan Appleyard (2007). How to Live Forever Or Die Trying: On the New Immortality. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0743268687.
^ Cameron, Donald (2001). The Purpose of Life. Woodhill Publishing. ISBN 0-9540291-0-0.
^ Wayne, Larry; Johnson, Grace. Expanding The Oneness. SelfGrowth.com. Retrieved on 2007-07-26.
^ Nick Lane (2005). Power, Sex, Suicide: Mitochondria and the Meaning of Life. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192804812.
^ Kenneth M. Weiss; Anne V. Buchanan (2004). Genetics and the Logic of Evolution. Wiley-IEEE. ISBN 0471238058.
^ Jennifer Ackerman (2001). Chance in the House of Fate: A Natural History of Heredity. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 0618219099.
^ Boyce Rensberger (1996). Life Itself: Exploring the Realm of the Living Cell. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195125002.
^ ^a ^b Thomas Patrick Burke (2004). The Major Religions: An Introduction with Texts. Blackwell Publishing, 400. ISBN 140511049X.
^ ^a ^b ^c Roger Ellerton PhD, CMC (2006). Live Your Dreams... Let Reality Catch Up: NLP and Common Sense for Coaches, Managers and You. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 1412047099.
^ John M. Cooper; D. S. Hutchinson (1997). Plato: Complete Works. Hackett Publishing, 1808. ISBN 0-87220-349-2.
^ John E. Findling, Frank W. Thackeray (2001). Events That Changed the World Through the Sixteenth Century. Greenwood Press, 240. ISBN 0313290792.
^ Peter Harrison (2001). The Bible, Protestantism, and the Rise of Natural Science. Cambridge University Press, 326. ISBN 0521000963.
^ Steven Dillon (2006). The Solaris Effect: Art and Artifice in Contemporary American Film. University of Texas Press, 265. ISBN 0292713452.
^ Raymond Aron (2000). The Century of Total War. Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0861711734.
^ Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama (1954). The Meaning of Life: Buddhist Perspectives on Cause and Effect. Doubleday, 379.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d George Cappannelli; Sedena Cappannelli (2004). Authenticity: Simple Strategies for Greater Meaning and Purpose at Work and at Home. Emmis Books, 256. ISBN 1578601487.
^ ^a ^b Michael Joachim Girard (2006). Essential Believing for the Christian Soul. Xulon Press, 324. ISBN 1597815969.
^ T. M. P. Mahadevan (1974). Philosophy: Theory and Practice (Proceedings of the International Seminar on World Philosophy). Centre for Advanced Study in Philosophy, University of Madras, 652.
^ Ernest Joseph Simmons (1973). Tolstoy. Routledge, 260. ISBN 071007395X.
^ Richard A. Bowell (2004). The Seven Steps Of Spiritual Intelligence: The Practical Pursuit of Purpose, Success and Happiness. Nicholas Brealey Publishing, 199. ISBN 1857883446.
^ John C. Gibbs; Karen S. Basinger; Dick Fuller (1992). Moral Maturity: Measuring the Development of Sociomoral Reflection. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 232. ISBN 0805804250.
^ ^a ^b ^c Timothy Tang (2007). Real Answers to The Meaning of Life and Finding Happiness. iUniverse, 70. ISBN 9780595459414.
^ Tyler T. Roberts (1998). Contesting Spirit: Nietzsche, Affirmation, Religion. Princeton University Press, 256. ISBN 0691001278.
^ Lucy Costigan (2004). What Is the Meaning of Your Life: A Journey Towards Ultimate Meaning. iUniverse, 124. ISBN 0595338801.
^ Steven L. Jeffers; Harold Ivan Smith (2007). Finding a Sacred Oasis in Grief: A Resource Manual for Pastoral Care. Radcliffe Publishing, 188. ISBN 1846191815.
^ David L. Jeffrey (1992). A Dictionary of Biblical Tradition in English Literature. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0802836348.
^ Dana A. Williams (2005). "In the Light of Likeness-transformed": The Literary Art of Leon Forrest. Ohio State University Press. ISBN 0814209947.
^ Jerry Z. Muller (1997). Conservatism: An Anthology of Social and Political Thought from David Hume to the Present. Princeton University Press, 464. ISBN 0691037116.
^ Mary Nash; Bruce Stewart (2002). Spirituality and Social Care: Contributing to Personal and Community Well-being. Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 256. ISBN 184310024X.
^ Xinzhong Yao (2000). An Introduction to Confucianism. Cambridge University Press, 362. ISBN 0521644305.
^ Bryan S. Turner; Chris Rojek (2001). Society and Culture: Principles of Scarcity and Solidarity. SAGE, 272. ISBN 0761970495.
^ Anil Goonewardene (1994). Buddhist Scriptures. Harcourt Heinemann, 48. ISBN 0435303554.
^ ^a ^b Luc Ferry (2002). Man Made God: The Meaning of Life. University of Chicago Press, 172. ISBN 0226244849.
^ ^a ^b ^c Eric G. Stephan; R. Wayne Pace (2002). Powerful Leadership: How to Unleash the Potential in Others and Simplify Your Own Life. FT Press, 225. ISBN 0130668362.
^ (2004) The Mutual-aid Approach to Working with Groups: Helping People Help One Another. Haworth Press. ISBN 0789014629.
^ John Caunt (2002). Boost Your Self-Esteem. Kogan Page. ISBN 0749438711.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j John Cook (2007). The Book of Positive Quotations. Fairview Press, 755. ISBN 1577491696.
^ Lee, Dong Yul; Park, Sung Hee; Uhlemann, Max R.; Patsult, Philip (June 2000). "What Makes You Happy?: A Comparison of Self-reported Criteria of Happiness Between Two Cultures". Social Indicators Research 50 (3): 351-362. doi:10.1023/A:1004647517069. ISSN 0303-8300. Retrieved on 2007-07-26.
^ Social perspectives, ACM Digital Library
^ John Kultgen (1995). Autonomy and Intervention: Parentalism in the Caring Life. Oxford University Press US, 280. ISBN 0195085310.
^ ^a ^b Steve Chandler (2005). Reinventing Yourself: How to Become the Person You've Always Wanted to Be. Career Press, 224. ISBN 1564148173.
^ ^a ^b John G. West (2002). Celebrating Middle-Earth: The Lord of the Rings as a Defense of Western Civilization. Inkling Books, 108. ISBN 1587420120.
^ Rachel Madorsky (2003). Create Your Own Destiny!: Spiritual Path to Success. Avanty House, 296. ISBN 0970534949.
^ Douglas Adams. The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. ISBN 0-330-25864-8.
^ Douglas Adams. Life, the Universe and Everything. ISBN 0-330-26738-8.
^ Douglas Adams (1 January 1980). The Restaurant at the End of the Universe. ISBN 0-345-39181-0.
^ Douglas Adams. So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish. ISBN 0-330-28700-1.
^ ^a ^b Monty Python's Completely Useless Web Site: Monty Python's The Meaning Of Life: Complete Script
^ Terry Burnham (2005). Mean Markets and Lizard Brains: How to Profit from the New Science of Irrationality. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0471716952.
^ Yolanda Fernandez (2002). In Their Shoes: Examining the Issue of Empathy and Its Place in the Treatment of Offenders. Wood 'N' Barnes Publishing. ISBN 1885473486.
^ Matt Lawrence (2004). Like a Splinter in Your Mind: The Philosophy Behind the Matrix Trilogy. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1405125241.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Pregnant Pauses: Charlie & Lucy
^ AllGreatQuotes: Charlie Brown Quotes
^ Quote Details: Charles M. Schulz: That's the secret to life... replace one worry with another....
^ HamieNET.com [You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown] Happiness Lyrics
^ Quote Details: Charles M. Schulz: Life is like an ice cream cone...you have to lick it one day at a time.
^ AllGreatQuotes: Lucy Van Pelt Quotes
^ Chekhov Quote:You ask "What is life?" That is the same as asking "What is a carrot?" A carrot is a carrot and we know nothing more.

Julian Baggini Julian Baggini is a British philosopher and writer. ... Robert Nozick (November 16, 1938 â€“ January 23, 2002) was an American philosopher and Pellegrino University Professor at Harvard University. ... Philosophical Explanations is a wide-ranging metaphysical and ethical treatise written by Robert Nozick and published in 1981. ... Philosophy Now is a philosophy magazine, published every two months and sold from news-stands and bookstores in the USA, UK, Australia and Canada. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 207th day of the year (208th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Ronald F. Thiemann is a professor of theology at Harvard Divinity School whose research focuses on the role of religion in public life. ... For the member of the National Assembly for Wales, see Paul Davies (Welsh politician). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 207th day of the year (208th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Richard D. Rick Warren (born January 28, 1954) is the founding and senior pastor of Saddleback Church in Southern California, the largest Christian church in California. ... The Purpose Driven Life book cover The Purpose Driven Life (2002) is a devotional book written by Christian author Rick Warren and published by Zondervan. ... Jiddu Krishnamurti or J. Krishnamurti, (May 12, 1895â€“February 17, 1986) was a well-known writer and speaker on fundamental philosophical and spiritual subjects, such as the purpose of meditation, human relationships, and how to enact positive change in global society. ... University of Helsinki is not to be confused with Helsinki University of Technology. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 207th day of the year (208th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Richard Taylor (1919-2003) was an American philosopher renowned for his dry wit and his contributions to metaphysics. ... Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy(Lyof, Lyoff) (September 9 [O.S. August 28] 1828 â€“ November 20 [O.S. November 7] 1910) (Russian: , IPA: ), commonly referred to in English as Leo Tolstoy, was a Russian writer â€“ novelist, essayist, dramatist and philosopher â€“ as well as pacifist Christian anarchist and educational reformer. ... Epicure redirects here. ... Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS, (18 May 1872 â€“ 2 February 1970), was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, advocate for social reform, and pacifist. ... Bertrand Russells A History of Western Philosophy : And Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day has the ambitious goal of tracing Western philosophy from the earliest times to Russells modern day, which was the nineteen sixties. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... John Stuart Mills book Utilitarianism is one of the most influential and widely-read philosophical defenses of utilitarianism in ethics. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 207th day of the year (208th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 213th day of the year (214th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 213th day of the year (214th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 213th day of the year (214th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Nick Bostrom (Boström in the original Swedish) is a philosopher at the University of Oxford, and known for his work on the anthropic principle. ... The University of Oxford, located in the city of Oxford in England, is the oldest university in the English-speaking world. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 209th day of the year (210th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS, (18 May 1872 â€“ 2 February 1970), was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, advocate for social reform, and pacifist. ... Year 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 80th day of the year (81st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Abdullah Yusuf Ali (14 April 1872 - 10 December 1953) was a Indian Islamic scholar who translated the Quran into English. ... The Qurâ€™Än [1] (Arabic: , literally the recitation; also sometimes transliterated as Quran, Koran, or Al-Quran) is the central religious text of Islam. ... Shrine of BahÃ¡ullÃ¡h BahÃ¡ullÃ¡h (ba-haa-ol-laa Arabic: Glory of God) (November 12, 1817 â€“ May 29, 1892), born MÃrzÃ¡ usayn-`AlÃ Nuri (Persian: ), was the founder of the BahÃ¡Ã Faith. ... The KitÃ¡b-i-Aqdas is the central book of the BahÃ¡Ã Faith, written by BahÃ¡ullÃ¡h, the founder of the religion. ... Shrine of BahÃ¡ullÃ¡h BahÃ¡ullÃ¡h (ba-haa-ol-laa Arabic: Glory of God) (November 12, 1817 â€“ May 29, 1892), born MÃrzÃ¡ usayn-`AlÃ Nuri (Persian: ), was the founder of the BahÃ¡Ã Faith. ... The KitÃ¡b-i-ÃqÃ¡n (Lit. ... Shrine of BahÃ¡ullÃ¡h BahÃ¡ullÃ¡h (ba-haa-ol-laa Arabic: Glory of God) (November 12, 1817 â€“ May 29, 1892), born MÃrzÃ¡ usayn-`AlÃ Nuri (Persian: ), was the founder of the BahÃ¡Ã Faith. ... The Seven Valleys (Persian: Haft-VÃ¡dÃ) is a book written in Persian by BahÃ¡ullÃ¡h, the Prophet-founder of the BahÃ¡Ã Faith. ... The Four Valleys (Arabic: ChahÃ¡r VÃ¡dÃ) is a book written in Persian by BahÃ¡ullÃ¡h, the Prophet-founder of the BahÃ¡Ã Faith. ... Shrine of BahÃ¡ullÃ¡h BahÃ¡ullÃ¡h (ba-haa-ol-laa Arabic: Glory of God) (November 12, 1817 â€“ May 29, 1892), born MÃrzÃ¡ usayn-`AlÃ Nuri (Persian: ), was the founder of the BahÃ¡Ã Faith. ... Gems of Divine Mysteries (Arabic: JavÃ¡hiruâ€™l-AsrÃ¡r), is a book by BahÃ¡â€™uâ€™llÃ¡h, the Prophet-founder of the BahÃ¡Ã Faith. ... It has been suggested that Penguin Modern Poets, Penguin Great Ideas be merged into this article or section. ... Photo of Monier Monier-Williams by Lewis Carroll Sir Monier Monier-Williams (1819â€“1899) studied, documented and taught Asian languages in England, and compiled one of the most widely-used Sanskrit-English dictionaries. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 189th day of the year (190th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Swami Vivekananda (Sanskrit: , SvÄmi VivekÄnanda) (January 12, 1863 â€“ July 4, 1902), whose pre-monastic name was Narendranath Dutta (Bengali: , NÃ´rendrÃ´nath DÃ´t-tÃ´), was one of the most famous and influential spiritual leaders of the philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 165th day of the year (166th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Geoffrey Parrinder (April 10, 1910â€“June 16, 2005), was a professor of comparative religion at Kings College London, Methodist minister, and author of over thirty books. ... Brian Greene (born February 9, 1963), is a theoretical physicist and one of the best-known string theorists. ... 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For other people of the same surname, and places and things named after Charles Darwin, see Darwin. ... The 1859 edition of On the Origin of Species First published in 1859, The Origin of Species (full title On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life) by British naturalist Charles Darwin is one of the pivotal... Clinton Richard Dawkins, FRS (born March 26, 1941) is a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist and popular science writer who holds the Charles Simonyi Chair for the Public Understanding of Science at the University of Oxford. ... Original book cover from the painting The Expectant Valley by zoologist Desmond Morris The Selfish Gene is a very popular and somewhat controversial book on evolutionary theory by Richard Dawkins, published in 1976. ... The Science Channel is a television channel spin-off from the Discovery Channel, which features only science-related television shows. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 329th day of the year (330th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Clinton Richard Dawkins, FRS (born March 26, 1941) is a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist and popular science writer who holds the Charles Simonyi Chair for the Public Understanding of Science at the University of Oxford. ... Cover illustration by the zoologist Desmond Morris The Blind Watchmaker is a 1986 book by Richard Dawkins in which he presents an explanation of, and argument for, the theory of evolution by means of natural selection. ... Clinton Richard Dawkins, FRS (born March 26, 1941) is a British ethologist, evolutionary biologist and popular science writer who holds the Charles Simonyi Chair for the Public Understanding of Science at the University of Oxford. ... The God Delusion is a book by British biologist Richard Dawkins, Professor for the Public Understanding of Science at the University of Oxford. ... Alister E. McGrath (b. ... The Dawkins Delusion? is a non-fiction book by the biochemist and Christian theologian Alister McGrath and Joanna Collicutt McGrath, written as a critical response to Richard Dawkins book The God Delusion. ... Alister E. McGrath (b. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 207th day of the year (208th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Raymond Kurzweil (pronounced: ) (born February 12, 1948) is a pioneer in the fields of optical character recognition (OCR), text-to-speech synthesis, speech recognition technology, and electronic keyboard instruments. ... Terry Grossman is an author and medical director of the Frontier Medical Institute in Denver, Colorado. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 207th day of the year (208th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Nick Lane PhD - is a British biochemist and an honorary senior research fellow at University College London and formerly strategic director at Adelphi Medi Cine a medical multimedia company. ... Tenzin Gyatso (born 6 July 1935) is the fourteenth and current Dalai Lama. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... ISSN, or International Standard Serial Number, is the unique eight-digit number applied to a periodical publication including electronic serials. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 207th day of the year (208th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Association for Computing Machinery, or ACM, was founded in 1947 as the worlds first scientific and educational computing society. ... Douglas NoÃ«l Adams (11 March 1952 â€“ 11 May 2001) was an English author, comic radio dramatist, and musician. ... The cover of The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy, from a late 1990s US printing. ... Douglas NoÃ«l Adams (11 March 1952 â€“ 11 May 2001) was an English author, comic radio dramatist, and musician. ... Life, the Universe and Everything (1982, ISBN 0-345-39182-9) is the third book in the five-volume Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy science fiction series by Douglas Adams. ... Douglas NoÃ«l Adams (11 March 1952 â€“ 11 May 2001) was an English author, comic radio dramatist, and musician. ... The Restaurant at the End of the Universe (1980, ISBN 0345391810) is the second book in the Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy comedy science fiction series by Douglas Adams. ... Douglas NoÃ«l Adams (11 March 1952 â€“ 11 May 2001) was an English author, comic radio dramatist, and musician. ... So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish (1984, ISBN 0-345-39183-7) is the fourth book of the Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy series written by Douglas Adams. ...

Contents

Philosophy, belief, faith and the meaning of life GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");