Tetradrachm of Menander I in Greco-Bactrian style (Alexandria-Kapisa mint).
Obv: Menander throwing a spear.
Rev: Athena with thunderbolt. Greek legend: BASILEOS SOTEROS MENANDROY, "King Menander, the Saviour".

Menander I ( also known as Milinda in Sanskrit, Pali), was one of the Greek kings of the Indo-Greek Kingdom in northern India from 155 or 150 to 130 BC. Coin of Menander I. File links The following pages link to this file: Pakistan History of Pakistan Menander I Categories: Currency images ... Coin of Menander I. File links The following pages link to this file: Pakistan History of Pakistan Menander I Categories: Currency images ... Approximate extent of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom circa 220 BCE. The Greco-Bactrians were a dynasty of Greek kings who controlled Bactria and Sogdiana, an area comprising todays northern Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia, the easternmost area of the Hellenistic world, from 250 to 125 BCE. Their expansion... Alexandria of the Caucasus (Askandria-e-Qafqaz or Askandria Paro paizad) was a city founded by Alexander the Great (one of many given the name Alexandria), at an important junction of communications in the southern foothills of the Hindu Kush, about 45 miles North of Kabul, in the country of... Drawing from a sculpture of Athena at the Louvre. ... Sanskrit ( संस्कृतम् ; pronunciation: ) is an Indo-European classical language of India and a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. ... For the town and district in Rajasthan, see Pali, Rajasthan For the Ganapati temple of pali and place in Maharastra, see Ballaleshwar Pali Pāli (Devanagari पालि) is a Middle Indo-Aryan dialect or prakrit. ... The Indo-Greek Kingdom (or sometimes Greco-Indian Kingdom) covered various parts of northwest and northern India from 180 BCE to around 10 CE, and was ruled by a succession of more than thirty Greek kings, often in conflict with each other. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC - 150s BC - 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC Years: 160 BC 159 BC 158 BC 157 BC 156 BC - 155 BC - 154 BC 153 BC... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC - 150s BC - 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC Years: 155 BC 154 BC 153 BC 152 BC 151 BC - 150 BC - 149 BC 148 BC... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC - 130s BC - 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC Years: 135 BC 134 BC 133 BC 132 BC 131 BC - 130 BC - 129 BC 128 BC...

A renowned Indo-Greek king

His territories covered the eastern dominions of the divided Greek empire of Bactria (from the areas of the Panjshir and Kapisa) and extended to the modern Pakistani province of Punjab with diffuse tributaries to the south and east, probably as far as Mathura. It has been suggested that Ta-Hsia be merged into this article or section. ... Panjshir is one of the thirty-four provinces of Afghanistan. ... Kapisa is one of 34 provinces in Afghanistan. ... The Punjab/ پنجاب province of Pakistan is part of the larger Punjab region. ... Mathura (मथुरा) is a city in India, located approximately 50 km north of Agra, and south of Delhi. ...

His capital is supposed to have been Sagala, a very prosperous city in northern Punjab (modern Sialkot). Sagala, today Sialkot, was a city of northern Pakistan in the Punjab region. ... The Punjab/ پنجاب province of Pakistan is part of the larger Punjab region. ... Sialkot (Urdu: سیالکوٹ ) is a city slumbering by the feet of the snow-covered peaks of Kashmir near the sparkling fresh waters of Chenab. ...

He is one of the few Bactrian kings mentioned by Greek authors, among them Apollodorus of Artemita, quoted by Strabo, who claims that the Greeks from Bactria were even greater conquerors than Alexander the Great, and that Menander was one of the two Bactrian kings, with Demetrius, who extended their power farthest into India: Apollodorus of Artemita was a Greek writer of the 1st century BCE. Apollodorus is quoted by Strabo as a source for his descriptions of Asia. ... the Greek georgapher Strabo, in a 16th‑century engraving. ... Alexander the Great (in Greek , transliterated Megas Alexandros) (July 356 BC – June 11, 323 BC), King of Macedon (336–323 BC), is considered one of the most successful military commanders in world history, conquering most of the world known to the ancient Greeks before his death. ... Silver coin depicting the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius (r. ...

Silver drachm of Menander I (155-130 BC).
Obv: Greek legend, BASILEOS SOTEROS MENANDROY lit. "Saviour King Menander".
Rev: Kharosthi legend: MAHARAJA TRATASA MENADRASA "Saviour King Menander". Athena advancing right, with thunderbolt and shield. Taxila mint mark.

"The Greeks who caused Bactria to revolt grew so powerful on account of the fertility of the country that they became masters, not only of Ariana, but also of India, as Apollodorus of Artemita says: and more tribes were subdued by them than by Alexander-- by Menander in particular (at least if he actually crossed the Hypanis towards the east and advanced as far as the Imaüs), for some were subdued by him personally and others by Demetrius, the son of Euthydemus the king of the Bactrians; and they took possession, not only of Patalena, but also, on the rest of the coast, of what is called the kingdom of Saraostus and Sigerdis. In short, Apollodorus says that Bactriana is the ornament of Ariana as a whole; and, more than that, they extended their empire even as far as the Seres and the Phryni." (Strabo 11.11.1 ^[1])

Strabo also suggests that these Greek conquests went as far as the capital Pataliputra in northeastern India (today Patna): This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Drachma, pl. ... The Kharoṣṭhī script, also known as the Gāndhārī script, is an ancient alphabetic script used by the Gandhara culture of historic northwest India to write the Gandhari and Sanskrit languages (the Gandhara kingdom was located along the present-day border between Afghanistan and Pakistan between the Indus River and the... Drawing from a sculpture of Athena at the Louvre. ... Taxila (Urdu: ٹپکسلا ) (Sanskrit: तक्षशिला, taká¹£aÅ›ilā) is an archaeological site, located in the Punjab (ancient Gandhara) province of Pakistan, west of the Islamabad Capital Territory and Rawalpindi, on the border of the Punjab and North West Frontier Province and just off the Grand Trunk Road. ... Silver coin depicting the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius (r. ... Coin depicting the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus (230-200 B.C.) Euthydemus was allegedly a native of Magnesia and possible Satrap of Sogdiana, who overturned the dynasty of Diodotus of Bactria and became a Greco-Bactrian king in about 230 BC according to Polybius. ... Sindh (Sind) سندھ is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and is home to the Sindhis and various other groups. ... Saraostus (also Saurashtra in Indian) was the name given by the Greeks to the area of Surat, the southeastern part of todays Indian state of Gujarat, bordering the city of Bombay. ... Sigerdis is a name given by the ancient Greeks to a part of the northwestern India subcontinent. ... Seres (Σηρες) was the ancient Greek and Roman name for the northwestern part of China and its inhabitants. ... The Phryni were an ancient people of eastern Central Asia, probably located in the eastern part of the Tarim Basin, in an area connected to that of the Seres and the Tocharians. ... ... Patna is the capital of the state of Bihar, in north-eastern India. ...

"Those who came after Alexander went to the Ganges and Pataliputra" (Strabo, 15.698).

The Indian records also describe Greek attacks on Mathura, Panchala, Saketa, and Pataliputra. This is particularly the case of some mentions of the invasion by Patanjali around 150 BC, and of the Yuga Purana, which describes Indian historical events in the form of a prophecy: Early morning on the Ganges The River Ganges (Ganga in Indian languages) (Devanagiri गंगा) is a major river in northern India. ... ... the Greek georgapher Strabo, in a 16th‑century engraving. ... Mathura (मथुरा) is a city in India, located approximately 50 km north of Agra, and south of Delhi. ... The position of the Panchala kingdom in Iron Age Vedic India. ... Ayodhya (अयोध्या) is an ancient city of India, the old capital of Awadh, in the Faizabad district of Uttar Pradesh. ... ... Patañjali, is the compiler of the Yoga Sutra, a major work containing aphorisms on the practical and philosophical wisdom regarding practice of Raja yoga. ... Mitcheners translation of the Yuga Purana. ...

"After having conquered Saketa, the country of the Panchala and the Mathuras, the Yavanas (Greeks), wicked and valiant, will reach Kusumadhvaja. The thick mud-fortifications at Pataliputra being reached, all the provinces will be in disorder, without doubt. Ultimately, a great battle will follow, with tree-like engines (siege engines)." (Gargi-Samhita, Yuga Purana chapter, No5).

In the West, Menander seems to have repelled the invasion of the dynasty of Greco-Bactrian usurper Eucratides, and pushed them back as far as the Paropamisadae, thereby consolidating the rule of the Indo-Greek kings in the northern part of the Indian Subcontinent. Mathura (मथुरा) is a city in India, located approximately 50 km north of Agra, and south of Delhi. ... Yona, Yonaka or Yavana is a Pali word used in ancient India to designate Greeks. ... ... Approximate extent of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom circa 220 BCE. The Greco-Bactrians were a dynasty of Greek kings who controlled Bactria and Sogdiana, an area comprising todays northern Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia, the easternmost area of the Hellenistic world, from 250 to 125 BCE. Their expansion... King Eucratides (171-145 BC) Obv: Bust of Eucratides. ... The Paropamisadae is an ancient area of the Hindu-Kush, in the Eastern part of Afghanistan. ...

The Milinda Panha gives some glimpses of his military methods:

"Has it ever happened to you, O king, that rival kings rose up against you as enemies and opponents?

-Yes, certainly.

-Then you set to work, I suppose, to have moats dug, and ramparts thrown up, and watch towers erected, and strongholds built, and stores of food collected?

-Not at all. All that had been prepared beforehand.

-Or you had yourself trained in the management of war elephants, and in horsemanship, and in the use of the war chariot, and in archery and fencing?

-Not at all. I had learnt all that before.

-But why?

-With the object of warding off future danger."

(Milinda Panha, Book III, Chap 7)

Silver drachm of middle-aged Menander.
Obv: Greek legend, BASILEOS SOTHROS MENANDROY lit. "Saviour King Menander".
Rev: Kharosthi legend: MAHARAJA TRATASA MENADRASA "Saviour King Menander". Athena advancing left, with thunderbolt and shield.

His reign was long and successful. Generous findings of coins testify to the prosperity and extension of his empire (with finds as far as Britain): the finds of his coins are the most numerous and the most widespread of all the Indo-Greek kings. Precise dates of his reign, as well as his origin, remain elusive however. Guesses among historians have been that Menander was either a nephew or a former general of the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I, but the two kings are now thought to be separated by at least thirty years. Menander's predecessor in Punjab seems to have been the king Apollodotus I. The Milinda Pañha (Pali. ... Image File history File linksMetadata MenanderMiddleAged. ... Image File history File linksMetadata MenanderMiddleAged. ... Drachma, pl. ... The Kharoṣṭhī script, also known as the Gāndhārī script, is an ancient alphabetic script used by the Gandhara culture of historic northwest India to write the Gandhari and Sanskrit languages (the Gandhara kingdom was located along the present-day border between Afghanistan and Pakistan between the Indus River and the... Drawing from a sculpture of Athena at the Louvre. ... Approximate extent of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom circa 220 BCE. The Greco-Bactrians were a dynasty of Greek kings who controlled Bactria and Sogdiana, an area comprising todays northern Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia, the easternmost area of the Hellenistic world, from 250 to 125 BCE. Their expansion... Silver coin depicting the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius (r. ... Indo-Greek king Apollodotus I (180-160 BCE). ...

Menander's empire survived him in a fragmented manner until the last Greek king Strato II disappeared around 10. Coin of Strato I and Strato II. Obv: Probable bust of Strato I. Greek legend: BASILEU SOTIROS STRATONOS KAI PHILOPAPTOR STRATONOS Kings Strato the Savior and Strato the Father-loving. Rev: Athena holding a thunderbolt. ... Events Differentiation of localized Teutonic tribes of the Irminones. ...

Menander was the first Indo-Greek ruler to introduce the representation of Athena Alkidemos ("Athena, saviour of the people") on his coins, probably in reference to a similar statue of Athena Alkidemos in Pella, capital of Macedon. This type was subsequently used by most of the later Indo-Greek kings. For other places named Pella, see: Pella (disambiguation). ... The Vergina Sun, a symbol associated with the Macedonian kingdom and today copyrighted by the World Intellectual Property Organization as a Greek emblem of state [1]. Macedon or Macedonia (from Greek ; see also List of traditional Greek place names) was the name of an ancient kingdom in the northern-most...

Menander and Buddhism

The Milinda Pañha

According to tradition, Menander embraced the Buddhist faith, as described in the Milinda Pañha, a classical Pali Buddhist text on the discussions between Milinda and the Buddhist sage Nāgasena. He is described as constantly accompanied by a guard of 500 Greek ("Yonaka") soldiers, and two of his counsellors are named Demetrius and Antiochus. Buddhism is a religion and philosophy focusing on the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni (Pāli:Sakyamuni), born Siddhārtha (Pāli: Siddhattha) of the Gautama (Pāli: Gotama) gotra, who probably lived in the 5th century BCE. Buddhism spread throughout the ancient Indian sub-continent in the five centuries... The Milinda Pañha (Pali. ... For the town and district in Rajasthan, see Pali, Rajasthan For the Ganapati temple of pali and place in Maharastra, see Ballaleshwar Pali Pāli (Devanagari पालि) is a Middle Indo-Aryan dialect or prakrit. ... There are a great variety of Buddhist texts. ... Nāgasena was a Buddhist sage who lived about 150 BCE. His answers to questions about Buddhism posed by Menander I (Pali: Milinda), the Indo-Greek king of northwertern India, are recorded in the Milinda Pañha. ... Yona, Yonaka or Yavana is a Pali word used in ancient India to designate Greeks. ...

A coin of Menander I with a Buddhist eight-spoked wheel.
Obv: Greek legend, BASILEOS SOTEROS MENANDROY lit. "Saviour King Menander" with eight-spoked wheel.
Rev: Kharosthi legend MAHARAJA TRATASA MENADRASA "Saviour King Menander", with palm of victory.

In the Milindanpanha, Menander is introduced as Coin of Menander I. Bopearachchi. ... Coin of Menander I. Bopearachchi. ... The eight-spoked dharma wheel is a common symbol in Buddhist iconography, representing the collective teachings of Buddha, known as the dharma. ... The Kharoṣṭhī script, also known as the Gāndhārī script, is an ancient alphabetic script used by the Gandhara culture of historic northwest India to write the Gandhari and Sanskrit languages (the Gandhara kingdom was located along the present-day border between Afghanistan and Pakistan between the Indus River and the...

"King of the city of Sâgala in India, Milinda by name, learned, eloquent, wise, and able; and a faithful observer, and that at the right time, of all the various acts of devotion and ceremony enjoined by his own sacred hymns concerning things past, present, and to come. Many were the arts and sciences he knew--holy tradition and secular law; the Sânkhya, Yoga, Nyâya, and Vaisheshika systems of philosophy; arithmetic; music; medicine; the four Vedas, the Purânas, and the Itihâsas; astronomy, magic, causation, and magic spells; the art of war; poetry; conveyancing in a word, the whole nineteen. As a disputant he was hard to equal, harder still to overcome; the acknowledged superior of all the founders of the various schools of thought. And as in wisdom so in strength of body, swiftness, and valour there was found none equal to Milinda in all India. He was rich too, mighty in wealth and prosperity, and the number of his armed hosts knew no end." (The Questions of King Milinda, Translation by T. W. Rhys Davids, 1890). Holiness means the state of being holy, that is, set apart for the worship or service of a god or gods. ... The word tradition, comes from the Latin word traditio which means to hand down or to hand over. ... This article concerns secularity, that is, being secular, in various senses. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Samkhya, also Sankhya, (Sanskrit: सांख्य) is a school of Indian philosophy, and is one of the six astika or Hindu philosophical schools of India. ... Yoga is a family of ancient spiritual practices that originated in India, where it remains a vibrant living tradition and is seen as a means to enlightenment. ... Nyaya (pronounced as nyα:yÉ™) is the name given to one of the six orthodox or astika schools of Hindu philosophy - specifically the school of logic. ... Vaisheshika, also Vaisesika, (Sanskrit: वैशॆषिक)is one of the six Hindu schools of philosophy (orthodox Vedic systems) of India. ... The Philosopher (detail), by Rembrandt Philosophy is a field of study that includes diverse subfields such as aesthetics, epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics, in which people ask questions such as whether God exists, whether knowledge is possible, and what makes actions right or wrong. ... Arithmetic is the current mathematics collaboration of the week! Please help improve it to featured article standard. ... Music is a human activity which involves structured and audible sounds, which is used for artistic or aesthetic, entertainment, or ceremonial purposes. ... Medicine is the branch of health science and the sector of public life concerned with maintaining human health or restoring it through the treatment of disease and injury. ... The Vedas (Sanskrit: वेद), collectively refers to a corpus of ancient Indo-Aryan religious literature that are associated with the Vedic civilization and are considered by adherents of Hinduism to be revealed knowledge. ... The Puranas are part of Hindu Smriti; these religious scriptures discuss devotion and mythology. ... Itihasa (Sanskrit: इतिहास - itihāsa in IAST notation, literally meaning that which happened) is the word for History. ... Astronomy (Greek: αστρονομία = άστρον + νόμος, astronomia = astron + nomos, literally, law of the stars) is the science of celestial objects and phenomena that originate outside the Earths atmosphere, such as stars, planets, comets, aurora, galaxies, and the cosmic background radiation. ... Magic or sorcery are terms referring to the alleged influencing of events and physical phenomena by supernatural, mystical, or paranormal means. ... The philosophical concept of causality, the principles of causes, or causation, the working of causes, refers to the set of all particular causal or cause-and-effect relations. ... The spell is a magical act intended to cause an effect on reality using supernatural means of liturgical or ritual nature. ... The Art of War (Chinese: 孫子兵法 sūn zi bīng fǎ) was a Chinese military text written during the 6th century BC by Sun Tzu. ... Poetry (from Ancient Greek: (poiéo/poió) = I create) is traditionally a written art form in which human language is used for its aesthetic qualities in addition to, or instead of, its notional and semantic content. ... Conveyancing is the act of transferring the ownership of a property from one person to another. ... The Milinda Pañha (Pali. ... 1890 (MDCCCXC) was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar). ...

Buddhist tradition relates that, following his discussions with Nāgasena, Menander adopted the Buddhist faith:

"May the venerable Nâgasena accept me as a supporter of the faith, as a true convert from to-day onwards as long as life shall last!" (The Questions of King Milinda, Translation by T. W. Rhys Davids, 1890).

He then handed over his kingdom to his son and retired from the world: The Milinda Pañha (Pali. ... 1890 (MDCCCXC) was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar). ...

"And afterwards, taking delight in the wisdom of the Elder, he handed over his kingdom to his son, and abandoning the household life for the houseless state, grew great in insight, and himself attained to Arahatship!" (The Questions of King Milinda, Translation by T. W. Rhys Davids, 1890)

There is however little besides this testament to indicate that Menander in fact abdicated his throne in favor of his son. Based on numismatic evidence, Sir Tarn believes that he in fact died, leaving his wife Agathocleia to rule as a regent, until his son Strato could rule properly in his stead. Despite the success of his reign, it is clear that after his death, his "loosely hung" empire splintered into a variety of Indo-Greek successor kingdoms, of various size and stability. A garden featuring depictions of various arhats (Hsi Lai Temple, California) An arhat (Sanskrit, also arahat or arahant (Pali); Chinese: 阿羅漢, āluóhàn, luóhàn, lohan; Tibetan: dgra-bcom-pa; Jp. ... The Milinda Pañha (Pali. ... 1890 (MDCCCXC) was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar). ...

Other Indian accounts

Indian relief of probable Indo-Greek king, possibly Menander, with Buddhist triratana symbol on his sword. Bharhut, 2nd century BC. Indian Museum, Calcutta (drawing).

• A 2nd century BC relief from a Buddhist stupa in Bharhut, in eastern Madhya Pradesh (today at the Indian Museum in Calcutta), represents a foreign soldier with the curly hair of a Greek and the royal headband with flowing ends of a Greek king, and may be a depiction of Menander. In his left hand, he hold a branch of ivy, symbol of Dionysos. Also parts of his dress, with rows of geometrical folds, are characteristically Hellenistic in style. On his sword appears the Buddhist symbol of the three jewels, or Triratana.

• A Buddhist reliquary found in Bajaur bears a dedicatory inscription referring to "the 14th day of the month of Kārttika" of a certain year in the reign of "Mahārāja Minadra" ("Great King Menander"):

"Minadrasa maharajasa Katiassa divasa 4 4 4 11 pra[na]-[sa]me[da]... (prati)[thavi]ta pranasame[da]... Sakamunisa"

"On the 14th day of Kārttika, in the reign of Mahārāja Minadra, (in the year ...), (the corporeal relic) of Sakyamuni, which is endowed with life... has been established" ^[2]

• According to an ancient Indian source, the Mahavamsa, Greek monks seem to have been active proselytizers of Buddhism during the time of Menander: the Yona (Greek) Mahadhammarakkhita (Sanskrit: Mahadharmaraksita) is said to have come from “Alasandra” (thought to be Alexandria of the Caucasus, the city founded by Alexander the Great, near today’s Kabul) with 30,000 monks for the foundation ceremony of the Maha Thupa ("Great stupa") at Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka, during the 2nd century BC:

"From Alasanda the city of the Yonas came the thera ("elder") Yona Mahadhammarakkhita with thirty thousand bhikkhus." (Mahavamsa, XXIX ^[3])

These elements tend to indicate the importance of Buddhism within Greek communities in northwestern India, and the prominent role Greek Buddhist monks played in them, probably under the sponsorship of Menander. Probable Indo-Greek king, Bharhut, 2nd century BCE. Personal drawing, released under GDFL. Photo of the same relief: [1] Boardman comments on this relief: (Boardman, The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity) File links The following pages link to this file: Indo-Greek Kingdom Categories: GFDL images ... Probable Indo-Greek king, Bharhut, 2nd century BCE. Personal drawing, released under GDFL. Photo of the same relief: [1] Boardman comments on this relief: (Boardman, The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity) File links The following pages link to this file: Indo-Greek Kingdom Categories: GFDL images ... The Triratna or Three Jewels symbol, on a Buddha footprint. ... Indian relief of probable Indo-Greek king, with Buddhist triratana symbol on his sword. ... The Indian Museum was founded by Dr. Nathaniel Wallich a Danish botanist at Serampore (original called Frederischnagore) near Calcutta in 1814. ... This article is on Calcutta/Kolkata, the city. ... (3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - other centuries) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) // Events 175 BCE - Antiochus IV Epiphanes, took possession of the Syrian throne, at the murder of his brother Seleucus IV Philopator, which rightly belonged to his nephew Demetrius I Soter. ... A stupa in Tibet A stupa (from the Sanskrit) is a type of Buddhist structure found across the Indian subcontinent, Asia and increasingly in the Western World. ... Indian relief of probable Indo-Greek king, with Buddhist triratana symbol on his sword. ... Madhya Pradesh (मध्य प्रदेश) is a state in central India. ... The Indian Museum was founded by Dr. Nathaniel Wallich a Danish botanist at Serampore (original called Frederischnagore) near Calcutta in 1814. ... This article is on Calcutta/Kolkata, the city. ... Species See text Hedera (English name ivy (plural, ivies) is a genus of about 10 species of climbing or ground-creeping evergreen woody plants in the family Araliaceae, native to the Atlantic Islands, Europe, North Africa and across Asia east to Japan. ... Bacchus by Caravaggio Dionysus, the name of a god, is occasionally confused with one of several historical figures named Dionysius. ... The Triratna or Three Jewels symbol, on a Buddha footprint. ... Standing Buddha, ancient region of Gandhara, northern Pakistan, 1st century CE. Gautama Buddha was a South Asian spiritual leader who lived between approximately 563 BCE and 483 BCE. Born Siddhartha Gautama in Sanskrit, a name meaning descendant of Gotama whose aims are achieved/who is efficacious in achieving aims, he... The Mahavamsa, also Mahawamsa, (Pāli: great chronicle) is a historical record, written in the Pāli language, of the Buddhist kings of Sri Lanka. ... Yona (also sometimes Yonaka) is a Pali word used in ancient India to designate ancient Greek people. ... Mahadhammarakkhita (Sanskrit: Mahadharmaraksita) was a Greek (in Pali:Yona, lit. ... Sanskrit ( संस्कृतम् ; pronunciation: ) is an Indo-European classical language of India and a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. ... Alexandria of the Caucasus (Askandria-e-Qafqaz or Askandria Paro paizad) was a city founded by Alexander the Great (one of many given the name Alexandria), at an important junction of communications in the southern foothills of the Hindu Kush, about 45 miles North of Kabul, in the country of... Alexander the Great (in Greek , transliterated Megas Alexandros) (July 356 BC – June 11, 323 BC), King of Macedon (336–323 BC), is considered one of the most successful military commanders in world history, conquering most of the world known to the ancient Greeks before his death. ... A view of the old city Kabul Kabul (, Kâbl, in Persian کابل) is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan with a population variously estimated at 2 to 4 million. ... A stupa in Tibet A stupa (from the Sanskrit) is a type of Buddhist structure found across the Indian subcontinent, Asia and increasingly in the Western World. ... // Name Anuradhapura, (அனுராதபுரம் in Tamil) is one of the ancient capitals of Sri Lanka, world famous for its well preserved ruins of the Great Sri Lankan Civilization. ... (3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - other centuries) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) // Events 175 BCE - Antiochus IV Epiphanes, took possession of the Syrian throne, at the murder of his brother Seleucus IV Philopator, which rightly belonged to his nephew Demetrius I Soter. ... Yona (also sometimes Yonaka) is a Pali word used in ancient India to designate ancient Greek people. ... A Buddhist Monk in Sri Lanka In Pāli, a bhikkhu (male) or bhikkhuni (female) is a fully ordained Buddhist monk. ... The Mahavamsa, also Mahawamsa, (Pāli: great chronicle) is a historical record, written in the Pāli language, of the Buddhist kings of Sri Lanka. ...

"Menander the Just, Follower of the Dharma"

Main article Menander the Just

Coin of Menander the Just.
Obv: Menander wearing a diadem. Greek legend: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΙΚΑΙΟΥ ΜΕΝΑΝΔΡΟΥ (King Menander the Just).
Rev: Winged figure bearing diadem and palm, with halo, probably Nike. The Kharoshthi legend reads MAHARAJASA DHARMIKASA MENADRASA (Great King, Menander, follower of the Dharma, Menander).

Most historians and numismatists consider that Menander changed his royal title and coins types at a later stage of his life ^[4], and this has been associated to his supposed conversion to Buddhism as described in the Milinda Panha. Coin of Menander II. Obv: Menander wearing a diadem. ... Image File history File linksMetadata MenanderDikaiou. ... Image File history File linksMetadata MenanderDikaiou. ... Coin of Menander II. Obv: Menander wearing a diadem. ... Diadem has a number of different meanings, including the following: A diadem is a type of crown. ... Halo around the sun at the South Pole (NOAA) A halo (also known as a nimbus or Gloriole) is a ring of light that surrounds an object. ... In Greek mythology, Nike (Greek Νίκη, pronounced /nike/ NEE-keh, meaning Victory) (Roman equivalent: Victoria), was a goddess who personified triumph and victory. ... The Kharoṣṭhī script, also known as the Gāndhārī script, is an ancient alphabetic script used by the Gandhara culture of historic northwest India to write the Gandhari and Sanskrit languages (the Gandhara kingdom was located along the present-day border between Afghanistan and Pakistan between the Indus River and the... Dharma (Sanskrit: धर्म) Dhamma [Pali] means Natural Law or Reality, and with respect to its significance for spirituality and religion might be considered the Way of the Higher Truths. ... The Milinda Pañha (Pali. ...

Although his first coins bear the mention "King Menander the Saviour" (Greek: BASILEOS SOTEROS MENANDROY/ Kharosthi: MAHARAJA TRATASA MENADRASA), later coins adopt the new title "King Menander the Just" (Greek: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΙΚΑΙΟΥ ΜΕΝΑΝΔΡΟΥ), to which, for the first time in any coinage corresponds the Pali title "Great King, follower of the Dharma" on the reverse (Kharoshthi: MAHARAJASA DHARMIKASA MENADRASA), a possible reference to his conversion to Buddhism. The Kharoṣṭhī script, also known as the Gāndhārī script, is an ancient alphabetic script used by the Gandhara culture of historic northwest India to write the Gandhari and Sanskrit languages (the Gandhara kingdom was located along the present-day border between Afghanistan and Pakistan between the Indus River and the... Dharma (Sanskrit: धर्म) Dhamma [Pali] means Natural Law or Reality, and with respect to its significance for spirituality and religion might be considered the Way of the Higher Truths. ... The Kharoṣṭhī script, also known as the Gāndhārī script, is an ancient alphabetic script used by the Gandhara culture of historic northwest India to write the Gandhari and Sanskrit languages (the Gandhara kingdom was located along the present-day border between Afghanistan and Pakistan between the Indus River and the...

The profiles of the king between the former and later coins are quite consistent. Based on the age difference between the rendering of the profiles on the coins, this change would have happened around the age of 50. None of the profiles on the coins of Menander "the saviour" would indicate an age beyond 50, while all the known coins of Menander "the Just" would tend to suggest a man beyond that age.

Coin of Menander the Just (Indian standard).
Obv: Athena standing, with spear and palm-branch, shield at her feet, making a benediction gesture with the right hand, similar to the Buddhist vitarka mudra. The Greek legend reads ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΙΚΑΙΟΥ ΜΕΝΑΝΔΡΟΥ (King Menander the Just).
Rev: Buddhist lion. Kharoshti legend reads MAHARAJASA DHARMIKASA MENADRASA (Great King, follower of the Dharma, Menander).

The coins of Menander the Just are filled with Buddhist symbolism, and present interesting evolutions of his previous coin types: Image File history File linksMetadata MenanderIIO.jpg Coin of Menander II. Bopearachchi. ... Image File history File linksMetadata MenanderIIO.jpg Coin of Menander II. Bopearachchi. ... Coin of Menander II. Obv: Menander wearing a diadem. ... Drawing from a sculpture of Athena at the Louvre. ... A replica of an ancient statue found among the ruins of a temple at Sarnath Buddhism is a philosophy based on the teachings of the Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, a prince of the Shakyas, whose lifetime is traditionally given as 566 to 486 BCE. It had subsequently been accepted by... A statue of Gautama Buddha showing a dharmacakra mudra In Hinduism, a mudra (Sanskrit, literally seal; 印相 inzō in Japanese) is a symbolic gesture made with the hand or fingers. ... The Kharoṣṭhī script, also known as the Gāndhārī script, is an ancient alphabetic script used by the Gandhara culture of historic northwest India to write the Gandhari and Sanskrit languages (the Gandhara kingdom was located along the present-day border between Afghanistan and Pakistan between the Indus River and the... Dharma (Sanskrit: धर्म) Dhamma [Pali] means Natural Law or Reality, and with respect to its significance for spirituality and religion might be considered the Way of the Higher Truths. ...

• When the goddess Athena is represented, she is not the warlike "Athena Alkidemos" of the earlier coins, but instead she has dropped her shield in a peaceful attitude, holds a palm of victory, and makes a benediction gesture identical to the Buddhist vitarka mudra.
• The goddess Nike, holding a palm of victory, is now crowned by a religious halo.
• On some of his coins, Menander represents himself from head to toe, a first for an Indo-Greek king. He has abandoned his spear-throwing warlike stance, and instead makes the vitarka mudra.
• The seated figure of Zeus is represented with a Buddhist wheel at his feet, echoing the only other known occurrence of the Buddhist wheel in Indo-Greek coinage, on an earlier coin type of Menander.
• Finally, the seated Buddhist lion (as on the Pillars of Ashoka and numerous Buddhist representations) is depicted on many of these coins, a unique phenomenon in Indo-Greek coinage (although the standing lion later appears again with Artemidoros).

A statue of Gautama Buddha showing a dharmacakra mudra In Hinduism, a mudra (Sanskrit, literally seal; 印相 inzō in Japanese) is a symbolic gesture made with the hand or fingers. ... In Greek mythology, Nike (Greek Νίκη, pronounced /nike/ NEE-keh, meaning Victory) (Roman equivalent: Victoria), was a goddess who personified triumph and victory. ... Halo around the sun at the South Pole (NOAA) A halo (also known as a nimbus or Gloriole) is a ring of light that surrounds an object. ... Statue of Zeus Phidias created the 12-m (40-ft) tall statue of Zeus at Olympia about 435 BC. The statue was perhaps the most famous sculpture in ancient Greece, imagined here in a 16th-century engraving. ... The pillars of Ashoka are a series of columns dispersed throughout the northern Indian subcontinent, and erected by the Mauryan king Ashoka during his reign in the 3rd century BCE. SAlMAN Ashish Many of the pillars are carved with proclamations reflecting Buddhist teachings: the Edicts of Ashoka. ... Silver tetradrachm of Artemidoros (c. ...

The question of Menander's change of title

Problematically, the two coin categories of Menander ("Menander the Saviour" and "Menander the Just") have no mint marks in common and the types are quite different, leading to suggestions (Bopearachchi) that "Menander the Just" may be a later, different, king, relabeled Menander II for convenience, and possibly the grandson of "Menander the Saviour", relabeled "Menander I". Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, by Osmund Bopearachchi, 1991. ... Coin of Menander II. Obv: Menander wearing a diadem. ...

Curiously however, almost none of the coins of Agathokleia and Strato I, unanimously acknowledged to be "Menander the Saviour"'s successors, have any common mint marks with him either ^[5]. On the contrary the western king Zoilos I appropriated most of Menander I's mint marks. An explanation would be that following Menander's death, his widow Agathokleia managed to flee to the East with her child (the future Strato I) and establish a new realm, setting up several new mints in the process (Bopearachchi), a rather extraordinary accomplishment for someone in her situation. Tetradrachm of Agathokleia, as Regent for Strato I. Circa 135–125 BC. Æ 29mm (9. ... Strato I (r. ... Coin of Zoilus I (r. ... Strato I (r. ... Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, by Osmund Bopearachchi, 1991. ...

Coin of Menander the Just.
Obv: King Menander in armour, standing, armed with spear and sword. Forming a benediction with the right hand, similar to Buddhist vitarka mudra. Greek legend: ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΔΙΚΑΙΟΥ ΜΕΝΑΝΔΡΟΥ (King Menander the Just).
Rev: Buddhist lion. Kharoshti legend reads MAHARAJASA DHARMIKASA MENADRASA (Menander, King of the Dharma).

Alternatively Menander I himself may have relocated to the Punjab, where he became "Menander the Just", "follower of the Dharma", until he transmitted his new realm to Agathokleia and Strato. The coins of Agathokleia ^[6] and Strato I ^[7] do share several mint marks with "Menander (II) the Just", as well as many similarities in the types and titles, at least in the first part of their rule. According to this scenario, Menander I had to abandon most of his western territories (and therefore most, or all, of his mints) at the end of his reign, possibly as the Greco-Bactrians, led by Zoilos I, invaded northwestern India as they fled from the Yuezhi following the destruction of Ai-Khanoum around 140 BC. Menander relocated in a territory centered on eastern Punjab, probably with Sagala (modern Sialkot) as his capital as described in the Milinda Panha, possibly extending from Taxila in the West (as suggested by some of his mint marks ^[8]) to Mathura in the east (as suggested by coin hoards ^[9]). Menander would have had to establish new mints in these territories. He would also have persisted in his adoption of Buddhism (one of Menander I's coins already displays the Dharma wheel) and changed his title to "Menander the Just", "follower of the dharma". This relocation beyond the Indus proved long-lasting, as eastern Indo-Greeks were to continue ruling from Sagala until around 10. Image File history File linksMetadata MenanderIIQ.jpg Coin of Menander II. Bopearachchi. ... Image File history File linksMetadata MenanderIIQ.jpg Coin of Menander II. Bopearachchi. ... Coin of Menander II. Obv: Menander wearing a diadem. ... A statue of Gautama Buddha showing a dharmacakra mudra In Hinduism, a mudra (Sanskrit, literally seal; 印相 inzō in Japanese) is a symbolic gesture made with the hand or fingers. ... The Kharoṣṭhī script, also known as the Gāndhārī script, is an ancient alphabetic script used by the Gandhara culture of historic northwest India to write the Gandhari and Sanskrit languages (the Gandhara kingdom was located along the present-day border between Afghanistan and Pakistan between the Indus River and the... Dharma (Sanskrit: धर्म) Dhamma [Pali] means Natural Law or Reality, and with respect to its significance for spirituality and religion might be considered the Way of the Higher Truths. ... Tetradrachm of Agathokleia, as Regent for Strato I. Circa 135–125 BC. Æ 29mm (9. ... Strato I (r. ... Approximate extent of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom circa 220 BCE. The Greco-Bactrians were a dynasty of Greek kings who controlled Bactria and Sogdiana, an area comprising todays northern Afghanistan and parts of Central Asia, the easternmost area of the Hellenistic world, from 250 to 125 BCE. Their expansion... Coin of Zoilus I (r. ... The migrations of the Yuezhi through Central Asia, from around 176 to 30 BCE. Yuezhi (Chinese:月氏, also 月支, Wade-Giles: Yüeh-Chih) or Da Yuezhi (Chinese:大月氏, also 大月支, Great Yuezhi) is the Chinese name for an ancient Central Asian people. ... Corinthian capitol, found at Ai-Khanoum, 2nd century BCE. Ai-Khanoum (lit. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC - 140s BC - 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC Years: 145 BC 144 BC 143 BC 142 BC 141 BC - 140 BC - 139 BC 138 BC... Punjab, 1903 Punjab Province, 1909 The Punjab (meaning: Land of five Rivers; also Panjab, Gurmukhi: ਪੰਜਾਬ, Shahmukhi: پنجاب) is a region straddling the border between India and Pakistan. ... Sagala, today Sialkot, was a city of northern Pakistan in the Punjab region. ... Sialkot (Urdu: سیالکوٹ ) is a city slumbering by the feet of the snow-covered peaks of Kashmir near the sparkling fresh waters of Chenab. ... Taxila (Urdu: ٹپکسلا ) (Sanskrit: तक्षशिला, taká¹£aÅ›ilā) is an archaeological site, located in the Punjab (ancient Gandhara) province of Pakistan, west of the Islamabad Capital Territory and Rawalpindi, on the border of the Punjab and North West Frontier Province and just off the Grand Trunk Road. ... Mathura (मथुरा) is a city in India, located approximately 50 km north of Agra, and south of Delhi. ... Events Differentiation of localized Teutonic tribes of the Irminones. ...

The Milinda Panha would tend to support this view, since it describes Menander as being somewhat cornered by numerous enemies into a circumscribed territory:

After their long discussion "Nagasaka asked himself "though king Milinda is pleased, he gives no signs of being pleased". Menander says in reply: "As a lion, the king of beasts, when put in a cage, though it were of gold, is still facing outside, even so do I live as master in the house but remain facing outside. But if I were to go forth from home into homelessness I would not live long, so many are my enemies" (Milinda Panha, Book III, Chapter 7, quoted in Boppearachchi ^[10]

After "Menander the Just"'s death, Agathokleia and Strato I would then naturally have inherited several of his mints, as apparently they adopted the "Menander making a vitarka mudra gesture" design and the titles "Saviour" and "Just" ("follower of the Dharma") during the first few years of their coinage, before Strato reverted to the embattled Athena Alkidemos design and a more neutral "Saviour Epiphanes" title. The Milinda Pañha (Pali. ...

The extent of the coinage of "Menander the Just" is also rather small (around 10 types are known), in effect very much smaller than the coinage of "Menander the Saviour" (more than 200 types, and thousands of coins recovered to this day), suggesting a shorter rule and a reduced economic base.

Menander's death

Plutarch (Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6) reports that Menander died in camp while on campaign, thereby differing with the version of the Milindapanha. Plutarch gives Menander as an example of benevolent rule, contrasting him with disliked tyrants such as Dionysus, and goes on explaining that his subject towns disputed about the honour of his burial, ultimately sharing his ashes among them and placing them in "monuments" (possibly stupas), in a manner reminiscent of the funerals of the Buddha ^[11]. Plutarch Mestrius Plutarchus (c. ... Dionysius I or Dionysius the Elder (c. ... A stupa in Tibet A stupa (from the Sanskrit) is a type of Buddhist structure found across the Indian subcontinent, Asia and increasingly in the Western World. ...

"But when one Menander, who had reigned graciously over the Bactrians, died afterwards in the camp, the cities indeed by common consent celebrated his funerals; but coming to a contest about his relics, they were difficultly at last brought to this agreement, that his ashes being distributed, everyone should carry away an equal share, and they should all erect monuments to him." (Plutarch, "Political Precepts" Praec. reip. ger. 28, 6 ^[12])

Succession

Most historians and numismatist agree that Menander was succeeded by his Queen Agathokleia, who acted as regent to their son Strato I until he became an adult and took over the crown. In Agathokleia's earliest coins, where she appears alone, with a seated Herakles, her Pali title appears as a combination of the two successive titles held by Menander, "Saviour" and "Follower of the Dharma": Tetradrachm of Agathokleia, as Regent for Strato I. Circa 135–125 BC. Æ 29mm (9. ... Strato I (r. ... Dharma (Sanskrit: धर्म) Dhamma [Pali] means Natural Law or Reality, and with respect to its significance for spirituality and religion might be considered the Way of the Higher Truths. ...

Obverse: Agathokleia in war attire, in profile. Greek legend BASILISSES THEOTROPOU AGATHOKLEIAS ("Queen Agathokleia, Godlike")

Reverse: Pali "Maharajasa tratarasa dharmikasa Agathukriae" ("Great Queen, saviour and follower of the Dharma, Agathokleia")

Drachm of Agathokleia at the beginning of her regency.
Obv: Diademed bust of Agathokleia, with drapery and necklace. Greek legend BASILISSES THEOTROPOU AGATHOKLEIAS "Godlike Queen Agathokleia".
Rev: King in military outfit, diademed, holding spear, bow, arrow and shield in his left hand, and extending his right hand in a benediction gesture. Kharoshthi legend "Maharajasa tratarasa dhramikasa Stratasa", "Great King, saviour and follower of the dharma, Strato".

The next coins, mentioning Strato for the first time, as he was still a child, also show Agathokliea on the obverse, and adopt on the reverse Menander II's depiction of a king in armour making the vitarka mudra. In these early coins also the title adopted for the future king Strato on the obverse is "Maharajasa tratarasa dhramikasa Stratasa" ("King Strato, saviour and follower of the dharma"), apparently the combination of both titles which had been held by Menander: Image File history File linksMetadata AgatokleiaG.jpg Summary Coin of Agathokleia. ... Image File history File linksMetadata AgatokleiaG.jpg Summary Coin of Agathokleia. ... Tetradrachm of Agathokleia, as Regent for Strato I. Circa 135–125 BC. Æ 29mm (9. ... The Kharoṣṭhī script, also known as the Gāndhārī script, is an ancient alphabetic script used by the Gandhara culture of historic northwest India to write the Gandhari and Sanskrit languages (the Gandhara kingdom was located along the present-day border between Afghanistan and Pakistan between the Indus River and the... Dharma (Sanskrit: धर्म) Dhamma [Pali] means Natural Law or Reality, and with respect to its significance for spirituality and religion might be considered the Way of the Higher Truths. ... Dharma (Sanskrit: धर्म) Dhamma [Pali] means Natural Law or Reality, and with respect to its significance for spirituality and religion might be considered the Way of the Higher Truths. ...

Obverse: Profile of Agathokleia in peace attire, as regent. Greek legend BASILISSIS AGATOKLEIAS ("Queen Agathokleia")

Reverse: King in armour, forming the Vitarka Mudra. Pali legend "Maharajasa tratarasa dharmikasa Stratasa" ("Great king, saviour and followers of the Dharma, Strato")

The first coins of Strato only, where he looks like an adolescent, show Athena in a peaceful attitude, holding Nike over her extended arm, in a parallel to the peaceful Athena of Menander II. Here again his Pali title is "Maharajasa tratarasa Dhramikasa Stratasa" ("Great saviour king Strato, follower of the Dharma"). On these coins, his mint-marks are the same as mint-marks of Menander II ^[13]. In Greek mythology, Nike (Greek Νίκη, pronounced /nike/ NEE-keh, meaning Victory) (Roman equivalent: Victoria), was a goddess who personified triumph and victory. ...

After a few years, Strato I and Agathokleia again reverted to the warlike Athena design on their coins, probably as a symbol of their conflicts with the Western Indo-Greek kings. Soon, Strato also abandoned the title "Follower of the Dharma":

Obverse: BASILEOS EPIPHANOUS SOTEROS STRATONOS "Saviour king Strato, manifest"

Reverse: Pali "Maharajasa pracachasa tratarasa Stratasa" "Great king, manisfest and saviour, Strato"

He held this last title until the end of his reign.

Agathokleia did not manage to keep the empire of her husband intact. The western parts became independent under king Zoilos I. Some of her subjects may have been reluctant to accept an infant king with a queen regent. The later king Heliokles II also over-struck some of Agathokleia's coins. Coin of Zoilus I (r. ... Coin of Heliokles II. Obv: Bust of helmetted king. ...

Legacy

Buddhism

Main article: Greco-Buddhism The Buddha, in Greco-Buddhist style, 1st-2nd century CE, Gandhara. ...

Vitarka Mudra gestures on Indo-Greek coinage. Top: Divinities Tyche and Zeus. Bottom: Depiction of Indo-Greek kings Nicias and Menander II.

After the reign of Menander I, his son Strato I and several subsequent Indo-Greek rulers, such as Amyntas, Nicias, Peukolaos, Hermaeus, and Hippostratos, depicted themselves or their Greek deities forming with the right hand a symbolic gesture identical to the Buddhist vitarka mudra (thumb and index joined together, with other fingers extended), which in Buddhism signifies the transmission of the Buddha's teaching. At the same time, right after the death of Menander, several Indo-Greek rulers also started to adopt on their coins the Pali title of "Dharmikasa", meaning "follower of the Dharma" (the title of the great Indian Buddhist king Ashoka was Dharmaraja "King of the Dharma"^[1]). This usage was adopted by Strato I, Zoilos I, Heliokles II, Theophilos, Peukolaos and Archebios. Indo-Greek mudras. ... Indo-Greek mudras. ... A statue of Gautama Buddha showing a dharmacakra mudra In Hinduism, a mudra (Sanskrit, literally seal; 印相 inzō in Japanese) is a symbolic gesture made with the hand or fingers. ... Military signalmen use hand and body gestures to direct flight operations aboard aircraft carriers. ... Tyche on the reverse of this coin by Gordian III. In Greek mythology, Tyche (Roman equivalent: Fortuna) was the presiding tutelary deity that governed the fortune and prosperity of a city, its destiny. ... Statue of Zeus Phidias created the 12-m (40-ft) tall statue of Zeus at Olympia about 435 BC. The statue was perhaps the most famous sculpture in ancient Greece, imagined here in a 16th-century engraving. ... Nicias (d. ... Coin of Menander II. Obv: Menander wearing a diadem. ... Strato I (r. ... Double decadrachm of Amyntas. ... Silver tetradrachm of king Niciuas (c. ... Coin of Peukolaos. ... Silver drachm of king Hermaeus (90-70 BCE). ... Tetradrachm of Hippostratus, reigned circa 65-55 BCE. Obv: Bust of Hippostratus with Greek legend BASILEOS MEGALOU SOTEROS / IPPOSTPATOU Great Saviour King Hippostratos. Rev: King on horseback, galloping. ... Military signalmen use hand and body gestures to direct flight operations aboard aircraft carriers. ... A statue of Gautama Buddha showing a dharmacakra mudra In Hinduism, a mudra (Sanskrit, literally seal; 印相 inzō in Japanese) is a symbolic gesture made with the hand or fingers. ... For the town and district in Rajasthan, see Pali, Rajasthan For the Ganapati temple of pali and place in Maharastra, see Ballaleshwar Pali Pāli (Devanagari पालि) is a Middle Indo-Aryan dialect or prakrit. ... Dharma (Sanskrit: धर्म) Dhamma [Pali] means Natural Law or Reality, and with respect to its significance for spirituality and religion might be considered the Way of the Higher Truths. ... Emperor Ashoka (a possible picturisation) Ashoka the Great (Devanagari: अशोक; IAST transliteration: ) was the emperor of the Mauryan Empire from 273 BCE to 232 BCE. After a number of military conquests, Ashoka reigned over most of South Asia and beyond, from present-day Afghanistan to Bengal and as far south as... Strato I (r. ... Coin of Zoilus I (r. ... Coin of Heliokles II. Obv: Bust of helmetted king. ... Tetradrachm of Theophilos, Attic standard. ... Coin of Peukolaos. ... Silver tetradrachm of king Archebios. ...

Altogether, the conversion of Menander to Buddhism suggested by the Milinda Panha seems to have triggered the use of Buddhist symbolism in one form or another on the coinage of close to half of the kings who succeeded him. Especially, all the kings after Menander who are recorded to have ruled in Gandhara (apart from the little known Demetrius III) display Buddhist symbolism in one form or another. The Milinda Pañha (Pali. ... Gandhāra (also Ghandara, Ghandahra, Chandahara, and Persian Gandara) is the name of an ancient kingdom in eastern Afghanistan and north-west province of Pakistan. ... Coin of Demetrius Aniketos. ...

Both because of his conversion and because of his unequaled territorial expansion, Menander may have contributed to the expansion of Buddhism in Central Asia. Although the spread of Buddhism to Central Asia and Northern Asia is usually associated with the Kushans, a century or two later, there is a possibility that it may have been introduced in those areas from Gandhara "even earlier, during the time of Demetrius and Menander" (Puri, "Buddhism in Central Asia"). Boundary of the Kushan empire, c. ... Gandhāra (also Ghandara, Ghandahra, Chandahara, and Persian Gandara) is the name of an ancient kingdom in eastern Afghanistan and north-west province of Pakistan. ... Silver coin depicting the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius (r. ... For the Indo-Greek king (160–135 BC) see Menander the Just. ...

Representation of the Buddha

Main article: Greco-Buddhist art Gandhara Buddha, 1st-2nd century CE. Greco-Buddhist art is the artistic manifestation of Greco-Buddhism, a cultural syncretism between the Classical Greek culture and Buddhism, which developed over a period of close to 1000 years in Central Asia, between the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century...

One of the first known representations of the Buddha, Gandhara.

The anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha is absent from Indo-Greek coinage, suggesting that the Indo-Greek kings may have respected the Indian an-iconic rule for Buddhist depictions, limiting themselves to Buddhist symbolism only. Consistently with this perspective, the actual depiction of the Buddha would be a later phenomenon, usually dated to the 1st century, emerging from the sponsorship of the syncretic Kushan Empire and executed by Greek, and, later, Indian and possibly Roman artists. Datation of Greco-Buddhist statues is generally uncertain, but they are at least firmly established from the 1st century. Download high resolution version (973x1600, 463 KB)Gandhara Buddha. ... Download high resolution version (973x1600, 463 KB)Gandhara Buddha. ... A stone image of the Buddha. ... Gandhāra (also Ghandara, Ghandahra, Chandahara, and Persian Gandara) is the name of an ancient kingdom in eastern Afghanistan and north-west province of Pakistan. ... A stone image of the Buddha. ... Boundary of the Kushan empire, c. ... Greco-Buddhism, sometimes spelled Græco-Buddhism, is the cultural syncretism between the culture of Classical Greece and Buddhism, which developed over a period of close to 800 years in Central Asia in the area corresponding to modern-day Afghanistan and Pakistan, between the 4th century BCE and the 5th century...

Another possibility is that the Indo-Greeks may not have considered the Buddha strictly as a God, but rather as an essentially human sage or philosopher, in line with the traditional Nikaya Buddhist doctrine. Just as philosophers were routinely represented in statues (but certainly not on coins) in Antiquity, the Indo-Greek may have initiated anthropomorphic representations of the Buddha in statuary only, possibly as soon as the 2nd-1st century BC, as advocated by Foucher and suggested by Chinese murals depicting Emperor Wu of Han worshipping Buddha statues brought from Central Asia in 120 BC ( See picture) ). An Indo-Chinese tradition also explains that Nagasena, also known as Menander's Buddhist teacher, created in 43 BC in the city of Pataliputra a statue of the Buddha, the Emerald Buddha, which was later brought to Thailand. A philosopher is a person who thinks deeply regarding people, society, the world, and/or the universe. ... Nikaya is a word of Pali origin and Sanskrit usage which was adopted into English in reference to Buddhist texts. ... Alfred Foucher (1865 - 1952), a French scholar, identified the Buddha image as having Greek origins. ... Emperor Wu of Han (156 BC–March 29, 87 BC), personal name Liu Che, was the seventh emperor of the Han Dynasty in China, ruling from 141 BC to 87 BC. Emperor Wu is best remembered for the vast territorial expansion that occurred under his reign, as well as the... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC - 120s BC - 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC Years: 125 BC 124 BC 123 BC 122 BC 121 BC - 120 BC - 119 BC 118 BC... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (643x974, 578 KB)8th century frescoe at Mogao Caves near Dunhuang in the Tarim Basin. ... Nāgasena was a Buddhist sage who lived about 150 BCE. His answers to questions about Buddhism posed by Menander I (Pali: Milinda), the Indo-Greek king of northwertern India, are recorded in the Milinda Pañha. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC - 40s BC - 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 0s Years: 48 BC 47 BC 46 BC 45 BC 44 BC 43 BC 42 BC 41 BC 40 BC... ... Emerald Buddha The Emerald Buddha (Thai พระแก้วมรกต - Phra Kaew Morakot, or official name พระพุทธมหามณีรัตนปฏิมากร - Phra Bhuddha Maha Mani Ratana Patimakorn) is the palladium of the Kingdom of Thailand, a figurine of the sitting Buddha, made of green jade (rather than emerald), clothed in gold, and about 45 cm tall. ...

Stylistically, Indo-Greek coins generally display a very high level of Hellenistic artistic realism, which declined drastically around 50 BC with the invasions of the Indo-Scythians, Yuezhi and Indo-Parthians. The first known statues of the Buddha are also very realistic and Hellenistic in style and are more consistent with the pre-50 BC artistic level seen on coins. The term Hellenistic (established by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen) in the history of the ancient world is used to refer to the shift from a culture dominated by ethnic Greeks, however scattered geographically, to a culture dominated by Greek-speakers of whatever ethnicity, and from the political dominance... The Indo-Scythian King of Kings Azes II (c. ... The migrations of the Yuezhi through Central Asia, from around 176 to 30 BCE. Yuezhi (Chinese:月氏, also 月支, Wade-Giles: Yüeh-Chih) or Da Yuezhi (Chinese:大月氏, also 大月支, Great Yuezhi) is the Chinese name for an ancient Central Asian people. ... Coin of Gondophares (20-50 AD), first king of the Indo-Parthians kingdom. ...

Detail of Asia in the Ptolemy world map. The "Menander Mons" are in the center of the map, at the east of the Indian subcontinent, right above the Malaysian Peninsula.

This would tend to suggest that the first statues were created between 130 BC (death of Menander) and 50 BC, precisely at the time when Buddhist symbolism appeared on Indo-Greek coinage. From that time, Menander and his successors may have been the key propagators of Buddhist ideas and representations: "the spread of Gandhari Buddhism may have been stimulated by Menander's royal patronage, as may have the development and spread of Gandharan sculpture, which seems to have accompanied it" (Mc Evilly, "The shape of ancient thought", p378) Download high resolution version (1787x1820, 597 KB)South-East Asia from Ptolemys geography. ... Download high resolution version (1787x1820, 597 KB)South-East Asia from Ptolemys geography. ... Ptolemys world map, reconstituted from Ptolemys Geographia (circa 150), indicating Sinae (China) at the extreme right, beyond the island of Taprobane (Sri Lanka, oversized) and the Aurea Chersonesus (Southeast Asian peninsula). ... Satellite image of the Indian subcontinent Map of South Asia (see note) The Indian subcontinent is a peninsular landmass of the Asian continent occupying the Indian Plate and extending into the Indian Ocean, bordered on the north by the Eurasian Plate. ... The Malay Peninsula (Malay: Tanah Melayu) is a major peninsula located in Southeast Asia. ...

Geography

In the Greco-Roman tradition, from at least the 1st century, the "Menander Mons", or "Mountains of Menander", came to designate the mountain chain at the extreme east of the Indian subcontinent, today's Naga Hills and Arakan, as indicated in the Ptolemy world map of the 1st century geographer Ptolemy.
Naga hills, reaching a height of around 3825 meters, lie on the border of India and Myanmar. ... Arakan is a state in the North Western part of Myanmar, formerly Burma. ... Ptolemys world map, reconstituted from Ptolemys Geographia (circa 150), indicating Sinae (China) at the extreme right, beyond the island of Taprobane (Sri Lanka, oversized) and the Aurea Chersonesus (Southeast Asian peninsula). ... The 1st century was that century which lasted from 1 to 100. ... Claudius Ptolemaeus (Greek: ; c. ...

				Buddhism
Terms and concepts		History		Schools and sects		People		By region and country
List of topics		Timeline		Temples		Texts		Culture
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Silver coin of a king named Demetrius Obv: Diademed and draped bust right. ... Maximum extent of Indo-Greek territory circa 175 BCE. The Indo-Greeks (or sometimes Greco-Indians) designate a series of Greek kings, who invaded and controlled parts of northwest and northern India from 180 BCE to around 10 BCE. They are the continuation of the Greco-Bactrian dynasty of Greek... The Paropamisadae is an ancient area of the Hindu-Kush, in the Eastern part of Afghanistan. ... Arachosia is the ancient name of an area that corresponds to the southern part of today s Afghanistan, around the city of Kandahar. ... Gandhāra (also Ghandara, Ghandahra, Chandahara, and Persian Gandara) is the name of an ancient kingdom in eastern Afghanistan and north-west province of Pakistan. ... This article details the Pakistani province of Punjab. ... The Paropamisadae is an ancient area of the Hindu-Kush, in the Eastern part of Afghanistan. ... Arachosia is the ancient name of an area that corresponds to the southern part of today s Afghanistan, around the city of Kandahar. ... Coin of Zoilus I (r. ... Gandhāra (also Ghandara, Ghandahra, Chandahara, and Persian Gandara) is the name of an ancient kingdom in eastern Afghanistan and north-west province of Pakistan. ... This article details the Pakistani province of Punjab. ... Tetradrachm of Agathokleia, as Regent for Strato I. Circa 135–125 BC. Æ 29mm (9. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... Buddhism is a religion and philosophy focusing on the teachings of the Buddha Śākyamuni (Pāli:Sakyamuni), born Siddhārtha (Pāli: Siddhattha) of the Gautama (Pāli: Gotama) gotra, who probably lived in the 5th century BCE. Buddhism spread throughout the ancient Indian sub-continent in the five centuries... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... Several Buddhist terms and concepts lack direct translations into English that cover the breadth of the original term. ... The history of Buddhism spans from the 6th century BCE to the present, starting with the birth of the Buddha Siddhartha Gautama. ... There are many divisions and subdivisions of the schools of Buddhism. ... Buddhist beliefs and practices vary according to region. ... The percentage of Buddhist population of each country was taken from the US State Departments International Religious Freedom Report 2004 [1]. Other sources used were CIA Factbook [2] and adherents. ... Contents: Top - 0–9 A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z The following is a List of Buddhist topics: A Abhidharma Ahimsa Ajahn Ajahn Chah Ajanta Aksobhya Alexandra David-Néel... 563 BCE: Siddhārtha Gautama, Buddha-to-be, is born in Lumbini, Ancient India. ... The Buddhist temple Wat Chiang Man, in Chiang Mai, Thailand, which dates from the late 13th century Buddhist temples and monasteries, sorted by location. ... There are a great variety of Buddhist texts. ... The cultural elements of Buddhism vary by region and include: Buddhist cuisine Buddhist art Buddharupa Art and architecture of Japan Greco-Buddhism Tibetan Buddhist sacred art Buddhist music Buddhist chant Shomyo Categories: Buddhism-related stubs ...

Notes

Mint mark 244 on a coin of Menander II The Mahavamsa, also Mahawamsa, (Pāli: great chronicle) is a historical record, written in the Pāli language, of the Buddhist kings of Sri Lanka. ... Punjab, 1903 Punjab Province, 1909 The Punjab (meaning: Land of five Rivers; also Panjab, Gurmukhi: ਪੰਜਾਬ, Shahmukhi: پنجاب) is a region straddling the border between India and Pakistan. ... Charsadda is 17 miles from Peshawar History Charsadda is thought to correspond to the ancient city of Pushkalavati, the administrative center of the area of Gandhara. ... Taxila (Urdu: ٹپکسلا ) (Sanskrit: तक्षशिला, taká¹£aÅ›ilā) is an archaeological site, located in the Punjab (ancient Gandhara) province of Pakistan, west of the Islamabad Capital Territory and Rawalpindi, on the border of the Punjab and North West Frontier Province and just off the Grand Trunk Road. ... In Greek mythology, Nike (Greek Νίκη, pronounced /nike/ NEE-keh, meaning Victory) (Roman equivalent: Victoria), was a goddess who personified triumph and victory. ... Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, by Osmund Bopearachchi, 1991. ... Taxila (Urdu: ٹپکسلا ) (Sanskrit: तक्षशिला, taká¹£aÅ›ilā) is an archaeological site, located in the Punjab (ancient Gandhara) province of Pakistan, west of the Islamabad Capital Territory and Rawalpindi, on the border of the Punjab and North West Frontier Province and just off the Grand Trunk Road. ... Strato I (r. ... Buddhist texts come in a huge variety of shapes and sizes. ... Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, by Osmund Bopearachchi, 1991. ... Image File history File linksMetadata MenanderMintmark. ...

Mint mark 244 on a regency coin of Agathokleia Image File history File links AgathokleiaMintmark. ...

Mint mark 227 on a regency coin of Agathokleia Coin of Agathokleia, c. ...

Mint mark 244 on a coin of Strato I Strato I. c. ...

See also

Indo-Greek Kingdom
Greco-Buddhism
Indo-Scythians
The Indo-Greek Kingdom (or sometimes Greco-Indian Kingdom) covered various parts of northwest and northern India from 180 BCE to around 10 CE, and was ruled by a succession of more than thirty Greek kings, often in conflict with each other. ... The Buddha, in Greco-Buddhist style, 1st-2nd century CE, Gandhara. ... Early anepigraphic coinage of the Indo-Scythians (c. ...

References

• "Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, Catalogue Raisonné", Osmund Bopearachchi, 1991, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, ISBN 2717718257.
• "The Shape of Ancient Thought. Comparative studies in Greek and Indian Philosophies" by Thomas McEvilley (Allworth Press and the School of Visual Arts, 2002) ISBN 1581152035
• "Buddhism in Central Asia" by B.N. Puri (Motilal Banarsidass Pub, January 1, 2000) ISBN 8120803728
• "The Greeks in Bactria and India", W.W. Tarn, Cambridge University Press.
• "Dictionary of Buddhism" Damien Keown, Oxford University Press ISBN 0198605609
• "De l'Indus à l'Oxus, Archéologie de l'Asie Centrale", Osmund Bopearachchi, Christine Sachs, ISBN 2951667922
• "The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity" by John Boardman (Princeton University Press, 1994) ISBN 0691036802
• "The Crossroads of Asia. Transformation in Image and symbol", 1992, ISBN 0951839918
• "Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins in the Smithsonian institution", Smithsonian Institution, Bopearachchi, 1993

Monnaies Gréco-Bactriennes et Indo-Grecques, by Osmund Bopearachchi, 1991. ...

External links

• Coins of King Menander
• More coins of Menander
• Kapisa coinage of Menander
• The Debate of King Milinda