The Mongol army was one of the most feared armies of the 12th and 13th century because of their superior strategy, ruthlessness and their exceptional mobility. Genghis Khan and others instituted various innovations that significantly helped his Mongol forces conquer large areas of territory though often being outnumbered in battles. (11th century - 12th century - 13th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 12th century was that century which lasted from 1101 to 1200. ... (12th century - 13th century - 14th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 13th century was that century which lasted from 1201 to 1300. ... For other uses, see Genghis Khan (disambiguation). ... Honorary guard of Mongolia. ...

Organization of Troops

Genghis Khan organized the Mongol soldiers into groups based around the number ten, i.e. 10 (arban), 100 (jaghun), 1,000 (mingghan), 10,000 (tumen), and each group of soldiers had a leader who would report higher up in his rank, up to the rank of tumen. This command structure proved to be highly flexible and allowed the Mongol army to attack en masse, divide into somewhat smaller groups to encircle and lead enemies into an ambush, or divide into small groups of 10 to mop up a fleeing and broken army. The Mongol army also was highly flexible due to the durability of its soldiers. Each Mongol soldier would have between 2 and 4 horses, allowing them to gallop for days without stopping or tiring. The Mongol soldier also could live for days off only his horse's blood and eating horse meat if times were hard. Honorary guard of Mongolia. ... Tumen was the part of decimal system used by Turkic, Proto-Turkic (such as the Huns) and by Mongol peoples for their army. ... An ambush is a long established military tactic in which an ambushing force uses concealment to attack an enemy that passes its position. ... horse, see Horse (disambiguation). ... Horse gaits are the different ways in which a horse can move, either naturally or as a result of specialized training by humans. ... Human blood smear: a - erythrocytes; b - neutrophil; c - eosinophil; d - lymphocyte. ... Musculature of horse Horse meat is meat cut from a horse. ...

Breaking Tribal Connections

When integrating new soldiers into the army, Genghis Khan divided the soldiers under different leaders to break up the social and tribal connections, so that there was no division based on heritage of tribal alliances. In all campaigns, the soldiers took their families along with them for the battle. Promotion was based only on merit. Each unit leader was responsible for the preparedness of his soldiers at any time and would be replaced if this was found lacking. This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ...

Mobility

Mongol soldiers were very mobile as compared to their counterparts. This would ultimately lead to better terrain scanning, learning of routes, assimilating local knowledge, and recognition of pitfalls for battle. Better mobility along with excellent political and military organization that was based upon horse speed led to the creation of a complex intelligence network and better battlefield scenarios.

Light Cavalry

Mongol cavalry soldiers, called Keshik, were extremely light troops compared to contemporary standards, allowing them to practice tactics and false retreats that would be impractical for a heavier enemy (such as European knights). Mongols under Genghis Khan and his descendants were the perfection of light cavalry/horse archer warfare. One of the commonly used techniques of Mongol soldiers was the feinted retreat. In the middle of battle, a Mongol unit or whole army would retreat suddenly, giving the opposition false confidence. After that, the opposition would find itself surrounded by Mongol soldiers that would eventually shower them with arrows. Mongols didn't favor close combat but rather preferred to fight from a distance with their composite bows (that could shoot up to 350 yards [reference missing]) and long-practiced marksmanship from horses. They did, however, carry scimitars, lances, and sometimes axes as well. It should be noted that the national sport of Afghanistan, known as Buzkashi, is reported to have come from the Mongols who often practiced the sport to sharpen their horsemenship. French Republican Guard - May 8, 2005 celebrations Cavalry (from French cavalerie) were soldiers or warriors who fought mounted on horseback in combat. ... A Norwegian soldier (a Corporal, armed with an MP-5) A soldier is a person who has enlisted with, or has been conscripted into, the armed forces of a sovereign country and has undergone training and received equipment to defend that country or its interests. ... The silver Anglia knight, commissioned as a trophy in 1850, intended to represent the Black Prince. ... Game of Buzkashi in Mazari Sharif, Afghanistan Buzkashi, Kok-boru or Oglak Tartis (Persian: بزکشی buzkashī: goat grabbing) (Uzbek, Tatar, Turkmen: kökbörü, kök blue + börü wolf, Kazakh: көкпар, Kyrgyz: улак) is a traditional Central Asian team sport played on horseback. ...

The Mongol's light armor consisted mostly of leather and chain mail, but a unique feature is the silk they wore beneath their armor. Since the silk would not be pierced by arrows, it was easy to remove an arrow without further harming the wound.

Strategy

In terms of battle detail, a Mongol army leader during battle might be anywhere in the formation and would use flags and horns to order his strategies during the battle. To the Mongols, victory seemed to matter most, and they couldn't afford to lose battles nor men because they were poor in logistics and had few spare troops (at best half as many soldiers in almost all major battles than their enemies, and traveling far away from their homeland). The main weapon of the Mongol soldiers was the Mongol bow and curved sword, lighter and more efficient for slashing and parrying than the European long sword. The rules of engagement were clear under Genghis Khan. For example, if two or more soldiers broke away from their group without their leader's approval, they would be put to death. The Mongol style of engaging in warfare seemed to be natural to their nomadic way of life, as they were comfortable with travelling long distances. Genghis Khan added the one necessary ingredient, which was strict discipline, to his armies which were similar to many armies of the steppes during the time. This article is about the military unit. ... The name Mongols (Mongolian: Mongol) specifies one or several ethnic groups. ... Look up Logistics in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The bayonet is used as both knife and spear. ... Honorary guard of Mongolia. ... The Mongol bow is a special recurve bow. ... This article is about the continent. ... The term long sword is a historic in the sense that it refers to a different kind of sword depending on historical context. ... This article describes the military term of the rules of engagement. ... One of the defining features of a professional military is a strict and sometimes elaborate code of courtesy. ...

Genghis Khan's military philosophy in general was to defeat opponents with the least risk and cost to the Mongols, relying on his loyal and meritocratically chosen generals and his soldiers.

Before invasion of an opposing area, Genghis Khan and his generals made extensive preparations in a Kurultai, or military council, to decide how the upcoming war would be conducted and as well which generals would participate; meanwhile they would thoroughly accumulate intelligence about their opponents, after which the course of hostilities would be calculated through. From this campaign planning, they decided how many units would be needed. Nevertheless, Mongol generals were armed with a high degree of independent decision-making privilege, provided they abide by Genghis Khan's general directives. Because of the light nature of Mongol armies, Genghis Khan built a sophisticated intelligence network through the Mongol army, trade networks and vassals. Kurultai (Tatar: Qorıltay) is a political and military council of ancient Mongol chiefs and khan. ...

Even though Mongol strategy seemed to vary slightly in response to their enemies, their actual tactics often remained the same. The idea and the advantage of flanking forces was to spread terror, gather intelligence on their opponents, and eliminate smaller opposing forces. These flanking columns had messengers that quickly relayed intelligence to the central column. Mongol armies were willing to engage field armies before seeking battle with the main opposition. Mongols were experts in laying sieges, often diverting rivers and food from cities. They also sent off refugees to other unconquered cities, in order to strain enemy resources. A strategy is a long term plan of action designed to achieve a particular goal, most often winning. Strategy is differentiated from tactics or immediate actions with resources at hand. ...

Psychological warfare

Genghis Khan used psychological warfare successfully in many of his battles, especially in terms of spreading terror and fear to other towns and cities. For example, Genghis Khan would often offer an opportunity for the enemy to surrender and pay tribute. If the offer was refused, he would invade and destroy the cities and towns, but allow a few civilians to flee to spread words of their loss to other areas. When words got out that Genghis Khan's force destroyed any resistance, it became much harder for other leaders to persuade their people to resist. Genghis Khan's offer for his opponents was to either surrender and pay tribute or be killed. When besieging, Genghis Khan usually left a submissive town unharmed and guaranteed them protection as a resource for future campaigns and logistics; if they resisted, however, he would attack without mercy. It has been suggested that infowars be merged into this article or section. ... A tribute (from Latin tribulum, contribution) is wealth one party gives to another as a sign of respect or, as was often case in historical contexts, of submission or allegiance. ... A resistance movement is a group or collection of individual groups, dedicated to fighting an invader in an occupied country through either the use of physical force, or nonviolence. ...

Success

The Mongol army's success was - in great opposition to the other successful armies until that time - different. When - for example - Alexander the Great, used the tactic of close combat, heavy cavalry and not very much weight on archery, Genghis men were the total opposite. The Mongols rode with extremely light armor, only strong enough to stand against enemy arrows, but they could ride very fast. Alexander the Great (Greek: ,[1] Megas Alexandros; July 356 BC–June 11, 323 BC), also known as Alexander III, king of Macedon (336–323 BC), was one of the most successful military commanders in history. ... Close Combat is the name of a series of tactical real-time (RTT) computer games by Atomic Games, as well as a first-person shooter by Destineer Games. ... An army unit consisting of mounted soldiers are commonly known as cavalry. ... In Target Archery, the object is to hit targets such as this to score points. ...

Notable military generals

Military generals and strategists who served Genghis Khan, such as Subutai and Jebe, played considerable roles in the practicalities of the war, using a hands-on approach. These generals were purely chosen as part of a meritocracy, as none of them were from the direct family line of Genghis. Genghis Khan did not as a general rule trust his relatives to command large number of troops for larger campaigns, and so he did not allow them to command significant numbers of soldiers. This does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... A strategy is a long term plan of action designed to achieve a particular goal, most often winning. Strategy is differentiated from tactics or immediate actions with resources at hand. ... Subutai (1176 to 1248) (Mongolian: Сүбээдэй, Sübügätäi or Sübüätäi , Chinese:速不台) was the primary strategist and general of Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... In the military sciences, a military campaign encompass related military operations, usually conducted by a defense or fighting force, directed at gaining a particular desired state of affairs, usually within geographical and temporal limitations. ...

• Jebe - (nickname meaning "the Arrow"), was one of the four "dogs of war". After surrendering to Temujin, Jebe made several accomplishments, including destroying Kuchlug's Kara-Khitai and defeating the Kievan Rus' in several battles, expanding the Mongol Empire considerably.

• Subutai - He was one of the four "dogs of war". One of the most prominent generals from the others, a brilliant strategist and good friend of Genghis Khan and his sons, he accompanied Jebe in his battles against Kara-Khitai and the Kievan Rus' and in the conquest of eastern and central Europe after Genghis Khan with his grandson Batu Khan.

• Muqali - Joined before the defeat of Jamuqa. One of the four "talented men" of Genghis Khan. Made the general of left-wing tumen. During Genghis Khan's conquest of Khwarezmid Empire, Muqali was the supreme commander of all Mongol forces in Jin China.

• Boorchu - One of the four "talented men" of Genghis Khan, Borchu joined as one of the earliest generals of Genghis Khan. He was made the general of right-wing tumen and was revered as a tough commander with great leadership skills.

• Borokhul - One of the four "talented men" of Genghis Khan, Borokhul defected from Jamuqa.

• Chilaun - One of the four "talented men" of Genghis Khan, Chilaun's family helped Temujin when he was captured by the Tai'chuids.

• Qubilai - He was one of the four "dogs of war".

• Jelme - Another early general of Gs Khan. He was one of the four "dogs of war" and was the commander of the personal guard of Genghis Khan.

This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Kievan Rus′ was an early, mostly East Slavic[1] state dominated by the city of Kiev from about 880 to the middle of the 12th century. ... Expansion of the Mongol Empire Another picture of Mongol Empire The Mongol Empire (Mongolian: Их Монгол Улс, literally meaning Greater Mongol Nation; 1206–1405) was the largest contiguous land empire in history, covering over 33 million km² [1] (12 million square miles) at its peak, with an estimated population of over 100 million... Subutai (1176 to 1248) (Mongolian: Сүбээдэй, Sübügätäi or Sübüätäi , Chinese:速不台) was the primary strategist and general of Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan. ... A strategy is a long term plan of action designed to achieve a particular goal, most often winning. Strategy is differentiated from tactics or immediate actions with resources at hand. ... World map showing the location of Europe. ... Batu Khan (Russian: , Ukrainian: ) (c. ... Muqali was one of the greatest general under Genghis Khan. ... Jamuqa was a Mongol military and political leader and the chief rival to Temüjin, later Genghis Khan, in the unification of the Mongol tribes. ... Tumen was the part of decimal system used by Turkic, Proto-Turkic (such as the Huns) and by Mongol peoples for their army. ... The Khwarezmid Empire (also known as the Khwarezmian Empire) was a Muslim Iranian state in the 11th century in Khwarezmia that lasted until the Mongol invasion in 1220. ... Honorary guard of Mongolia. ... Tumen was the part of decimal system used by Turkic, Proto-Turkic (such as the Huns) and by Mongol peoples for their army. ... Jamuqa was a Mongol military and political leader and the chief rival to Temüjin, later Genghis Khan, in the unification of the Mongol tribes. ... Chilaun was a general in the Mongol Empire, known as one of Genghis Khans four talented men. His relatives helped a young Genghis escape from captivity at the hands of the Taichuids. ...

Mongol siege warfare and logistics

Technology was one of the important facets of Mongolian warfare. For instance siege machines were an important part of Genghis Khan's warfare, especially in attacking fortified cities. The siege engines were disassembled and were carried on horses to be rebuilt at the site of the battle. Replica battering ram at Château des Baux, France. ...

The Mongol logistical system was distinguished by its mobility. Most columns of toumen were self-sufficient in the short run. The Mongol armies lived off the land heavily. In dire straits, the Mongol warrior could drink blood from his string of remounts. Heavier equipment was brought up by well organized supply trains. Once the main battle and siege was over, the Mongol army would follow the enemy leader until he was killed in order to prevent him from being a rallying point for his army after war.

The Kharash

An essential feature of Mongolian tactics was the use of kharash. During a battle the Mongols would drive before themselves a crowd of local residents which had the role of being an "alive board". During city sieges the Kharash did make breaches in walls.

Defeat of the Mongols

Undefeated in most encounters, Mongols operations under Ghengis Khan and his later successors stretched from Asia, to Central Europe, to Russia, to India, to the Middle East. What then stopped the Asiatic horsemen from conquering the land surface of the earth?

Shaky tribal structure and succession disputes. The tribal structure was a relative fragile one, held together initially by Genghis Khan's ruthless will. On his death, the empire became divided. Such division arguably saved the people of Europe, for Mongol victories penetrated as far as Poland and Hungary, and could have gone much further. Succession disputes and deliberations however caused the fierce horsemen to withdraw from Central Europe. Russia received no such reprieve, nor did China, nor parts of the Middle East, but they each met their fates separately, under varying circumstances.

"Going native" - a divide and conquer factor diluting Mongol power. Over time, some conquered peoples were able to dilute, absorb or blunt Mongol advances. China is the most famous example, with the power and influence of Chinese culture eventually absorbing and "turning" the rough horsemen. Another factor was that success bred division. In time, like the Vikings, Mongol came to fight Mongol over the spoils of victory.

Mongols not as successful in terrain unsuited to cavalry or in the naval arena. The Mongols were never really tested in terrain unsuitable to mass cavalry sweeps, nor were they noted for exploits at sea. They conquered Afghanistan's main routes and cities with ease for example, but the bulk of the country with its forbidding mountain terrain, bane of invaders everywhere, was not pacified. The Mongols under Kublai Khan also met defeat in Japan, failing to project sufficient power across a large body of water to overcome stout opposition on a hostile shore. Whether they would have had the same world-humbling success if they had pushed into the forests and swamps beyond Poland or Hungary is open to question. Nevertheless the Asiatic horsemen demonstrated clear superiority over their European opponents in almost every encounter until the gunpowder era.

Growing power of agricultural peoples, and shrinking manpower base helped reduce Mongol success. The military manpower of the Mongols was not unlimited. There were only so many tough horsemen to go around, and these had been forged from birth on the harsh tribal steppes. Attrition and casualties over time reduced combat strength, and replacements were not easy to find the further away the Mongols moved from their ancestral homelands. Encroaching agricultural peoples also caused shrinkage of the steppes - reducing the economic base that had produced so many swift ponies and superb fighting men. The final straw was the gunpowder age, which put an end to the run of success enjoyed by the mounted warrior, not only in Asia (China, Korea, Japan) but elsewhere as well.

See also

• Genghis Khan

Yam is a supply point route messenger system developed by Genghis Khan. ... The Pax Mongolica or Mongol Peace is a phrase coined by Western scholars to describe the effect of the conquest of the Mongol Empire on the social, cultural and economic life of the inhabitants in the 13th and 14th centuries. ... Yassa, alternatively Yasa or Yasaq, is a written code of laws created by Genghis Khan. ... Kurultai (Tatar: Qorıltay) is a political and military council of ancient Mongol chiefs and khan. ... A nerge is a Mongolian military tactic that originated as a hunting technique. ... A type of horse archer in Age of Kings available only to the Mongols. ... Tumen was the part of decimal system used by Turkic, Proto-Turkic (such as the Huns) and by Mongol peoples for their army. ...

References

• May, Timothy. "The Mongol Art of War." [1] Westholme Publishing, Yardley. 2007.
• Zerjal, Tatiana, Yali Xue, Giorgio Bertorelle, R. Spencer Wells, Weidong Bao, Suling Zhu, Raheel Qamar, Qasim Ayub, Aisha Mohyuddin, Songbin Fu, Pu Li, Nadira Yuldasheva, Ruslan Ruzibakiev, Jiujin Xu, Qunfang Shu, Ruofu Du, Huanming Yang, Matthew E. Hurles, Elizabeth Robinson, Tudevdagva Gerelsaikhan, Bumbein Dashnyam, S. Qasim Mehdi, and Chris Tyler-Smith. 2003. The Genetic Legacy of the Mongols. The American Journal of Human Genetics 72:718-721
• Genghis Khan and the Mongols. Genghis Khan and the Mongols. Retrieved on October 12, 2004.
• Mongol Arms. Mongol Arms. Retrieved on June 24, 2003.
• Weatherford, Jack. Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World, 2004.