Historical re-enactors as soldiers of the Roman Army on manoeuvres.

Rome was a militarized state whose history was often closely entwined with its military history over the 1229 years that the Roman state existed. The core of the military history of the Roman Empire is the account of its great land battles, from the conquest of Italy to its final battles against the Huns. Soldiers of the Roman Army (on manoeuvres in Nashville, Tennessee) This photo was taken around AD 92. ... Soldiers of the Roman Army (on manoeuvres in Nashville, Tennessee) This photo was taken around AD 92. ... Reenactors of the American Civil War Historical reenactment is an activity in which participants recreate some aspects of a historical event or period. ... The Roman Forum was the central area around which ancient Rome developed. ... Many historians consider the Huns (meaning person in Mongolian language) the first Mongolian and Turkic people mentioned in European history. ...

Institutions

See also Roman military structure. The Roman military had a very large and well organized structure. ...

Roman army

History and evolution

Roman military camp reconstruction

"The Roman Army" is the name given by English-speakers to the soldiers and other military forces who served the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire. The Roman words for the military in general were often based on the word for one soldier, miles. The army in general was the militia, and a commander of military operations, magister militiae. In the republic, a general might be called imperator, "commander" (as in Caesar imperator), but under the empire, that term became reserved for the highest office. Image File history File links Roman_Camp_Arges_reconstruction. ... Image File history File links Roman_Camp_Arges_reconstruction. ... King of Rome redirects here. ... See also Roman Republic (18th century) and Roman Republic (19th century). ... The Roman Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Ancient Roman polity in the centuries following its reorganization under the leadership of Octavian (better known as Caesar Augustus), until its radical reformation in what was later to be known as the Byzantine Empire. ... The Latin word imperator was a title originally roughly equivalent to commander during the period of the Roman Republic. ...

The Romans only called themselves "Roman" in very formal circumstances, such as senatus populusque Romanus (SPQR), "the Roman senate and people" or when they needed to distinguish themselves from others, as in civis Romanus, "Roman citizen." Otherwise, they used less formal and ethnocentric terms, such as nostri, "our men", also in mare nostrum, "our sea", for the Mediterranean. The state was res publica, "the public thing", and parallel to it was res militaris, "the military thing", which could have a number of connotations. See also the SPQR series of murder mystery novels and the SPQR board game. ... Satellite image The Mediterranean Sea is a part of the Atlantic Ocean almost completely enclosed by land, on the north by Europe, on the south by Africa, and on the east by Asia. ... Res publica is a Latin phrase, made of res + publica, literally meaning public thing. It is the origin of the word Republic. // Etymology The word publica is the feminine singular of the 1st and 2nd declension adjective publicus, publica, publicum, which is itself derived from an earlier form, poplicus—relating... De Re Militari (Latin On military matters) was a treatise of late Roman warfare that became a military guide in the middle ages. ...

Miles has no clear etymology. We know that Rome was originally an Etruscan city, Ruma, and the Etruscans were a war-like people. Many of the early families of Rome, including some of the most aristocratic families, were originally Etruscan. It would be surprising, then, if miles had an Indo-european etymology. We don't know enough Etruscan language to rule it in or out as Etruscan. Map showing the extent of the Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities. ... The Indo-European languages include some 443 (SIL estimate) languages and dialects, including most of the major language families of Europe, as well as many languages of Southwest and South Asia, which belong to a single superfamily. ... Etruscan was a language spoken and written in the ancient region of Etruria (current Tuscany) and in parts of what are now Lombardy, Veneto, and Emilia-Romagna (where the Etruscans were displaced by Gauls), in Italy. ...

The Army came to dominate much of the land surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, including the province of Britannia and Asia Minor at the Empire's height. Little is known of the army under the monarchy. Even before the monarchy was overthrown in 509 BC, the army had become a citizen army. It remained a citizen army throughout most of the Republic, until becoming a professional army following the reforms of Gaius Marius c. 100 BC. Principal sites in Roman Britain Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between 43 and 410 CE. The Romans referred to their province as Britannia. ... Anatolia (Greek: ανατολη anatole, rising of the sun or East; compare Orient and Levant, by popular etymology Turkish Anadolu to ana mother and dolu filled), also called by the Latin name of Asia Minor, is a region of Southwest Asia which corresponds today to the Asian portion of Turkey. ... A citizen army is an army of non-professional citizen soldiers who are drafted in times of war. ... Gaius Marius (Latin: C·MARIVS·C·F·C·N) (157 - January 13, 86 BC) was a Roman general and politician who was mostly known for his reform of Roman armies. ...

The army ended on a note less musical. Rome became what we would call a military dictatorship. The army began to play a part in selecting emperors, removing them typically by assassination. Imperator became a very risky office to hold. At last the senate refused to nominate any more candidates and left the selection totally up to the army, but the decision to do that did not bring stability in government. In the end the empire broke in two and then spintered into rival, warring armies. By that time there were but few Romans in the Roman army. It consisted mainly of provincial troops, due to the practice of placating enemies by letting them serve in the army, which exerted military discipline over them.

Pre-Republican military evolution

Rome was probably founded as a compromise between Etruscan residents of the area and Italic tribes nearby. The kings were Etruscan. Their language was still spoken by noble families in the early empire, although sources tell us it was dying out. Under the first king, Romulus, society consisted of gentes, or clans, arranged in 80 curiae and three tribes. From them were selected 8000 pedites (infantry) and 800 celeres (cavalry) of gentes-connected men. The decimal scheme seems already to have existed: one unit of fast troops for every 10 of foot. Italic can refer to: Italic languages Italic scripts Italic means Of or from Italy; the usage is most commonly restricted to talking about the people and languages of what is now Italy from the historic period before the Roman Empire. ... Romulus may refer to any of these articles: Romulus is a mythical founder of Rome, brother of Remus. ... GENS is Sega Genesis emulator for Windows 98/2000/ME/XP. It is considered to be one of the most compatible Genesis emulators available, meaning that most ROMs available will play on it without any problems. ... Infantry of the 36th Ulster Division, in the First World War Infantry are soldiers who fight primarily on foot, mainly with small arms and operate within organized military units. ... Italian cavalry officers practice their horsemanship in 1904 outside Rome. ...

At first, under the Etruscan Kings, the massive Greek phalanx was the most desired battle formation. Early Roman soldiers hence must have looked much like Greek hoplites. A Macedonian phalanx, as portrayed in the Rome: Total War computer game. ... A hoplite armed with a spear. ...

A key moment in Roman history was the introduction of the census (the counting of the people) under Servius Tullius. He had found that the aristocratic organization now did not provide enough men for defense against the hill tribes, and, consequently, he accepted non-aristocrats into the state and reorganized society on the basis of wealth, determined at the census. A census is the process of obtaining information about every member of a population (not necessarily a human population). ... Servius Tullius was the sixth legendary king of ancient Rome, and the second king of the Etruscan dynasty. ...

Citizens were graded into six classes by property assessment. From them were recruited milites according to the equipment they could afford and the needs of the state.

From the wealthiest classes were recruited the heavy-armed infantry, equipped like the Greek hoplite warrior with helmet, round shield (clipeus), greaves and breastplate, all of bronze, and carrying a spear (hasta) and sword (not the gladius). In battle they followed the principle of "two forward, one back." The first and second acies, or lines of battle, composed by principes and hastati, were forward; the triarii or "third rank", containing the veterani, or "old ones", was held in reserve. From the name, hastati, we can deduce that the hasta, a thrusting spear, was the weapon of choice. Triariis were equipped with a long spear, or pike, a shield and heavy armor. Hasta is a Latin word meaning spear. ... The plural of the Latin word princeps Specifically, usually in the plural, in the military, the so-called Principes formed the second line of battle in the Roman Republican Army. ... The Hastati (sing. ... The Triarii (Latin singular triarius) was the third standard line of infantry of the Roman Empires army. ...

The remaining class or classes (rorarii) were light-armed with the javelin (verutum). They were no doubt used for skirmishing, which provided some disruption of enemy ranks before the main event. The officers as well as the cavalry were either not in the six classes but were drawn from citizens who were enrolled as patricians of senatorial rank or equestrians (equites), also known as knights; they were of the first class. Cavalry remained an aristocratic arm up to the introduction of motorized warfare. Rorarii form the final lines in the ancient Pre-Marius Roman army. ... An Equestrian (Latin eques, plural equites) was a member of one of the two upper social classes in the Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. ...

All in all the Roman army consisted of 18 centuries of equites, 82 centuries of the first class (of which 2 centuries were engineers), 20 centuries each of the second, third and fourth classes and 32 centuries of the fifth class (of which 2 centuries were trumpeters).

Even these measures were inadequate to the challenges Rome was to face. They went to war with the Hernici, Volsci and Latini (Italics), undertook the reduction of Etruria and endured an invasion of Gauls under Brennus. Into the gap stepped one of the great generals Rome seemed able to produce at critical moments: Marcus Furius Camillus. He held various offices, such as interrex and dictator, but was never king himself. The Hernici were an ancient people of Italy, whose territory was in Latium between the Lago di Fucino and the Sacco River (Trerus), bounded by the Volscian on the south, and by the Aequians and the Marsians on the north. ... The Volsci were an ancient Italic people, well known in the history of the first century of the Roman Republic. ... Latium (Lazio in Italian) is a region of central Italy, bordered by Tuscany, Umbria, Abruzzo, Molise, Campania and the Tyrrhenian Sea. ... Etruria was an ancient country in Central Italy, located in an area that covered part of what now are Tuscany, Latium and Umbria. ... Gallia (in English Gaul) is the Latin name for the region of western Europe occupied by present-day France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... A sculpture depicting the Brennus who led the attack on Rome that adorned an 18th or 19th century French naval vessel Brennus is the name of two Celtic chieftains famous in ancient history: 1. ... Marcus Furius Camillus (circa 446- 365 BC) was a Roman soldier and statesman of patrician descent. ... Dictator was the title of a magistrate in ancient Rome appointed by the Senate to rule the state in times of emergency. ...

In the early fourth century BC Rome received its greatest humiliation, as the Gauls under Brennus sacked Rome itself. The Romans wanted to abandon the city and resettle at Veii (an Etruscan city), but Camillus prevented it. If Rome was to re-establish her authority over central Italy, and be prepared to meet any similar disasters in future, some reorganization was needed. These changes were traditionally believed to have been the work of Camillus, but in another theory they were introduced gradually during the second half of the fourth century BC. Veii - or Veius - was in ancient times, an important Etrurian city 18 km NNW of Rome, Italy. ...

Italy was not governed by city states like Greece, where armies met on large plains, deemed suitable by both sides, to reach a decision. Far more it was a collection of hill tribes using the difficult terrain to their advantage. Something altogether more flexible was needed to combat such foes than the unwieldy, slow-moving phalanx.

The legio, or "levy", was introduced at this time, with a structure of manipuli ("handsful"). A heavier shield, the scutum, took the place of the clipeus, and a heavier throwing spear, the pilum, was introduced. The line of battle was more open so that a rank could hurl a volley, preferably downhill, breaking the ranks of the enemy. The first two lines carried pila. The rear rank, remaining in close order, and armed with hastae, were the pilani (not from pilum but from pilus, "closed rank"), in front of which were the antepilani carrying pila. In addition to these changes, the men began to receive pay, making a professional army possible. The Roman legion (from the Latin legio, meaning levy) was the basic military unit of ancient Rome. ... Scutum (Latin for shield) is a small constellation. ... A Roman coin showing Antoninianus of Carinus holding pilum and globe. ...

The Republican Army

The historian, Polybius, gives us a clear picture of the republican army at what is arguably its height in 160 BC. Serving in the army was part of civic duty in Rome. To serve in the infantry, one had to meet a property requirement. Polybius (ca 203 BC - 120 BC, Greek Πολυβιος) was a Greek historian of the Mediterranean world famous for his book called The Histories or The Rise of the Roman Empire, covering the period of 220 BC to 146 BC. // Personal experiences As the former tutor of Scipio Aemilianus , the famous adopted...

The draft

The highest officers of the military were the two consuls, who were also the leading members of the executive branch of the government. Each of them ordinarily commanded an army group of two legions, which they also had the responsibility of raising. In the war-like state Rome was, the highest civilian officers were also the military chiefs of staff and the commanding generals in battle. They answered only to the senate. For modern diplomatic consuls, see Consulate general. ... A senate is a deliberative body, often the upper house or chamber of a legislature. ...

Raising the legions was an annual affair. The term of service was one year, although many no doubt were picked year after year. The magistrates decided who in the tribes were to be presented for selection.

The word we translate as "magistrate" was a tribal official, named, of course, a tribunus ("of the tribus"). Here a basic division of the military and civilian branches applied, as well as the subjection of the military to the civilian. The working organizations of the tribe were called comitia (the committee). They elected tribuni plebis, "tribunes of the people" as well as 24 tribuni militares, 6 per legion, who were careerists of at least 5 or 6 years service. A career would include both military and civilian offices. The 6 military tribunes were to be the senior staff of the legion. Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Greek form tribounos) was a title shared by several elected magistracies and other governmental and/or (para)military offices of the Roman Republic and Empire. ... The Roman Republic (Latin: Res Publica Romanorum) vested formal governmental powers in four separate peoples assemblies — the Comitia Curiata, the Comitia Centuriata, the Comitia Tributa, and the Concilium Plebis. ...

On selection day, the presiding tribune sent the men of the tribe before the military tribunes in groups of four. The four senior staffs of the future legions oberved a priority of selection, which rotated. Each staff would take its pick, man by man, until 4200 men each had been selected, the complements of four legions. The selection of 16400 men must have taken several days, unless you imagine a very fast walk-through. Such a method begs us to suppose that arrangements had been negotiated in advance.

If the circumstances of the state required it, the complement could be expanded to more men, or the consuls could draft as many as 4 legions each. Additional forces could be drafted under ad hoc commanders termed proconsules, who served "in place of consuls." In the later republic, the relatively small number of legions commanded by the consuls (2-4) resulted in their power being overshadowed by the proconsuls, the provincial governors. They would often have more loyalty (see Marian Reforms) from their troops than their consular counterparts, and the same time have the ability to raise vast numbers of troops. For the Miocene ape, see Proconsul (genus) Under the Roman Empire a proconsul was a promagistrate filling the office of a consul. ...

While the provincial armies were technically supposed to stay within the province their governor controlled, this was ignored by the middle of the 1st Century BC. By the end of the Republic, the various men involved in the civil wars had raised the number of legions throughout the Republic's provinces to more than fifty, many at the command of a single man. (2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century - other centuries) The 1st century BC starts on January 1, 100 BC and ends on December 31, 1 BC. An alternative name for this century is the last century BC. (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) // Events The Roman Republic...

The necessity to raise legions in a hurry, to offset battle losses, caused an abbreviation of the recruitment process. The government appointed two boards of three military tribunes each, who were empowered to enter any region in Roman jurisdiction for the purpose of enlisting men. These tribunes were not elected. The experience requirement was dropped in the case of aristocratic appointees. Some were as young as 18, but this age was considered acceptable for a young aristocrat on his way up the cursus honorum, or ladder of offices.

The appointed tribunes conducted an ad hoc draft, or dilectus, to raise men. They tended to select the youngest and most capable-looking. One is almost reminded of the British press gangs, except that Roman citizens were entitled to some process, no matter how abbreviated, but the press gangs took any male off the street. If they had to, the appointed tribunes took slaves, as after the Battle of Cannae. Press Gang was a British childrens television comedy-drama, which ran for forty-three episodes in five series from 1989 to 1993. ... The Battle of Cannae, August 2, 216 BC, was a significant battle of the Second Punic War. ...

Soldiers who had served out their time and obtained their discharge (missio), but had voluntarily enlisted again at the invitation of the consul or other commander were called evocati. A specialist unit in the Roman army made up of distinguished former officers brought out of retirement. ...

The Standard Legion

A standard Republican legion before the reforms of Marius (“the early Republic”) contained about 5000 men divided into the velites, the principes, and the hastati, of 1200 men each, the triarii, of 600 men, and the equites, of 800 men. The first three types stood forward in battle; the triarii, back. The velites and the equites were used mainly for various kinds of support. Gaius Marius (Latin: C·MARIVS·C·F·C·N)¹ (157 BC - January 13, 86 BC) was a Roman general and politician elected Consul an unprecedented seven times during his career. ...

The class system of Servius Tullius had already organized society in the best way to support the military. He had, so to speak, created a store in which the officers could shop for the resources they needed. The officers themselves were elected by the civilian centuries, usually from the classici or the patricii if the latter were not included in the classici (there is some question). Servius Tullius was the sixth legendary king of ancient Rome, and the second king of the Etruscan dynasty. ...

Available were 80 centuries of wealthy classici, 40 of young men, ages 17 to 45, and 40 of men 45 and older. These citizens could afford whatever arms and armor the officers thought they needed. The classici could go into any branch of the legion, but generally veterans were preferred for the triarii, young men for the velites. The rest were filled out from the young 40 centuries. The older 40 were kept for emergencies, which occurred frequently. These older men were roughly equivalent to the Army Reserve in the United States.

If the arms requirement was less severe, or the expensive troops were in short supply, the recruiters selected from Classes 2 through 4, which again offered either older or younger men. Class 5 were centuries of specialists: carpenters, and so on. The Romans preferred not to use Class 6 but if the need was very great they were known to recruit from slaves and the poor, who would have to be equipped by the state.

The full equipage of arms and armor were the helmet with colored crest and face protectors, breastplates or chain mail (if you could afford it), greaves, the parma (a round shield), the scutum, an oblong wrap-around of hide on a wood frame, edged with metal, with the insignia of the legion painted on, the pilum, the hasta velitaris, a light javelin of about 3 feet with a 9-inch metal head, and a short sword they borrowed from Spanish tribes, the gladius. It was both pointed for thrusting and edged for slashing. A Roman coin showing Antoninianus of Carinus holding pilum and globe. ... From left to right: Mainz, Fulham, Pompeii, and Pompeii Gladii. ...

These arms could be combined in various ways, except that one line of battle had to be armed the same way. Most typical was a line of principes armed with pila, gladii, and defended by the scuta. The hastati could be armed that way or with the hasta and parma. The velites bore the hasta velitaris and depended on running to get them away after a throw, which is why only the young were chosen for that job.

The basic unit of the army was the company-sized centuria of 60 men commanded by a centurion. He had under him two junior officers, the optios, who each had a standard-bearer, or vexillarius. Presumably he used them at will to form two squads. In addition was a squad of 20 velites attached to the century, probably instructed ad hoc by the centurion.

Two centuries made up a manipulum of 120 men. Each line of battle contained 10 maniples, 1200 men, except that the triarii were only 600. The legion of 4200 infantry created in this way was supported by 800 equites, or cavalry, organized in 10 turmae (squadrons) of 80 horse each, under a master of horse (magister equitatum), who took orders from the legion commander. Cavalry was used for scouting, skirmishing and various sorts of clean-up, as well as being another reserve that could be thrown into the battle. The Republic was ignorant of armies on horseback, which, coming off the steppes of Central Asia in blitzkrieg operations, were to trouble the later empire.

The Legion in Battle

Servius Tullius, most likely originally an Etruscan soldier of fortune (to whom he built temples), saw the ineptitude of the Roman army of the times and determined to remedy the situation. He was man deeply sympathetic to the ordinary Roman, for which value he paid with his life. Before that time he established the social foundations of a superior army. The army was not at first very successful, partly because it faced superior generals and partly through inexperience. Roman generals gave up trying to defeat Hannibal the Carthaginian as he ravaged Italy, and under Fabius Cunctator (“the delayer”) camped at a distance and watched the doings of the Carthaginians, never getting close enough to fight. Servius Tullius was the sixth legendary king of ancient Rome, and the second king of the Etruscan dynasty. ... Map showing the extent of the Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities. ... Hannibals feat in crossing the Alps with war elephants passed into European legend: a fresco detail, 1510, Capitoline Museums, Rome Hannibal (from Punic, literally Baal is merciful to me, 247 BC – 182 BC) was a politician, statesman and considered one of the greatest military commanders in history. ...

Perhaps much can be said for watching. At any rate, the army came into the hands of a family of careerists and professional soldiers, the Cornelii, a gens of the most ancient stock, patrician through and through in the best sense of the word, the first real successors to Servius. After much trial and error, suffering personal losses, they produced one of the best and most influential generals Rome ever had, Publius Cornelius Scipio. He built the Servian army into a victorious fighting machine. Cornelius (fem. ... GENS is Sega Genesis emulator for Windows 98/2000/ME/XP. It is considered to be one of the most compatible Genesis emulators available, meaning that most ROMs available will play on it without any problems. ... Publius Cornelius Scipio (died 211 BC) was a general and statesman of the Roman Republic. ...

Let the Carthaginians ravage Italy. Scipio took the war to Carthage, landing in North Africa with a republican army. The strategy succeeded; Hannibal was recalled at once, he came home immediately with a disrupted army and was beaten by Scipio at the Battle of Zama, 202 BC. With the tactics developed by Scipio, now entitled Africanus, and good generalship, the army at last lived up to the potential imparted to it by King Servius. Here is how the tactics worked. A map of the central Mediterranean Sea, showing the location of Carthage (near modern Tunis). ... The Battle of Zama, generally accepted to have been fought on or around October 19 of 202 BC, was the final and decisive battle of the Second Punic War. ...

First the general picked his ground. The Romans now understood fairly well the importance of taking the initiative and picking your ground, with some infamous exceptions. If the terrain was not right, the army remained within its fortified camp (which was virtually unassailable) until the enemy moved on, and then followed him, waiting for an opportunity to engage.

The ideal terrain was a gently sloping hill with a stream at the bottom. The enemy would have to ford the stream and move up the slope. The film, Spartacus, recreates the ideal scene. The legion was drawn up in three lines of battle, with the turmae and the velites placed opportunistically. The hastati in front and the principes behind were stationed in a line of maniples like chess pieces, 10 per line, separated from each other. The two centuries of a maniple fought side by side. The line of principes was offset so as to cover the gaps in the hastati, and the Triarii, somewhat more thinly spread, covered the principes. Kirk Douglas in the title role of the 1960 film Spartacus. ...

Roman formations were open. The last thing they wanted was to be crushed together and cut down without being able to use their weapons, as they had been so many times before, and as so many armies who never studied Roman warfare were to be later. Every man must by regulation be allowed one square yard in which to fight, and square yards were to be separated by gaps of three feet.

Now came the moment of battle. The turmae and the bands of velites (skirmishers) made forays opportunistically, trying to disrupt the ranks of the enemy or prevent them from crossing the stream (if there was one). While they were doing this the rest of the legion advanced. At a signal, the skirmishers retired through or around Roman ranks (there probably were trumpet calls, but we know little of them).

Picking up speed, the hastati launched pila. These heavy missiles had a range of about 100 yards. On impact they drove through shields and armor both, pinning men together and disrupting the line. Just before the hastati were to close, the principes launched a second volley over their heads. The hastati now drew gladii and closed. So great was the impact, we hear from Caesar, that sometimes the men would jump up on the enemy shields to cut downward.

What happened next depended on the success of the hastati. If they were victorious, they were joined by the principes, who merged into their line to fill the gaps and make up losses. The triarii moved to the flanks to envelop the enemy. If the hastati were not victorious, they merged backward into the principes. The third line remained in reserve unless the other two failed, in which case the front two merged into the third.

Such was the attack of a Roman legion, which was nearly always successful, if it was done correctly. Later the Romans learned how to secure their flanks with ballistae and other “cannon-like” throwing or shooting machines. The attack depended in effect on a schwerpunkt, a massing of firepower on the enemy’s front line. Whenever the legions could not set it up, they were generally massacred.

Marian reforms

By the end of the 2nd century BC the Republican army was experiencing a severe manpower shortage. In addition to this shortage, Roman armies were now having to serve for longer periods to fight wars further away from their home. The Gracchi had attempted to resolve the former problem by redistributing public land to the lower classes, and thereby increase the number of men eligible for military service, but were killed before they could achieve this. Thus, the extremely popular Gaius Marius at the end of the 2nd century used his power to reorganize the Republican army. Firstly, while still technically illegal, he recruited men from the lower classes who did not meet the official property requirement. He also reorganized the legions into the cohort system, doing away with the manipular system. The new legions were made up of 10 cohorts, each with 6 centuries of 80 men. The first cohort carried the new legionary standard, a silver or gold eagle called the aquila. This cohort had only 5 centuries, but each century had double the men of normal centuries. All together, each legion had approximately 4,800 men. The Marian reforms had great political fallout as well. Although the officer corps was still largely composed of Roman aristocrats, the rank-and-file troops were all lower-class men - serving in the legions became less and less of every citizen's traditional civic duty to Rome and more exclusively a means to win glory for your family as an officer. It also meant that legions were now (more or less) permanent formations, not just temporary armies deployed according to need (the Latin word 'legio' is actually their word for 'levy'). As enduring units, they were able to become more effective fighting forces; more importantly, they could now form lasting loyalties to their commanders, as the typical 1-year consul system began to break down and generals served for greater durations. This is what made the civil wars possible, and it is why scholars often cite the Marian Reforms as the beginning of the end for the Roman Republic. (3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - other centuries) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) // Events 175 BCE - Antiochus IV Epiphanes, took possession of the Syrian throne, at the murder of his brother Seleucus IV Philopator, which rightly belonged to his nephew Demetrius I Soter. ... The Gracchi were a noble plebeian family of ancient Rome. ... Gaius Marius (Latin: C·MARIVS·C·F·C·N) (157 - January 13, 86 BC) was a Roman general and politician who was mostly known for his reform of Roman armies. ... A cohort (from the Latin cohors, plural cohortes) is a fairly large military unit, generally consisting of one type of soldier. ... The signa militaria were the Roman military ensigns or standards. ...

The Imperial Army

During the reign of Augustus and Trajan the army became a professional one. Its core of legionaries was composed of Roman citizens who served for a minimum of twenty five years. Augustus in his reign tried to eliminate the loyalty of the legions to the generals who commanded them, forcing them to take an oath of allegiance directly to him. While the legions remained relatively loyal to Augustus during his reign, under others, especially the more corrupt emperors or those who unwisely treated the military poorly, the legions often took power into their own hands. Legions continued to move farther and farther to the outskirts of society, especially in the later periods of the empire as the majority of legionaries no longer came from Italy, and were instead born in the provinces. The loyalty the legions felt to their emperor only degraded more with time, and lead in the 2nd Century and 3rd Century to a large number of military usurpers and civil wars. By the time of the military officer emperors that characterized the period following the Crisis of the Third Century the Roman army was just as likely to be attacking itself as an outside invader. Augustus (plural Augusti) is Latin for majestic or venerable. The greek equivalent is sebastos, or a mere grecization (by changing of the ending) augustos. ... Emperor Trajan Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus (September 18, 53 – August 9, 117), Roman Emperor (98-117), commonly called Trajan, was the second of the so-called Five Good Emperors of the Roman Empire. ... Crisis of the Third Century (also known as the Military Anarchy or the Imperial Crisis ) is a commonly applied name for the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 and 284 caused by the three simultaneous crises of external invasion, internal civil war and economic collapse. ...

Both the pre- and post-Marian armies were greatly assisted by auxiliary troops. A typical Roman legion was accompanied by a matching auxiliary legion. In the pre-Marian army these auxiliary troops were Italians, and often Latins, from cities near Rome. The post-Marian army incorporated these Italian soldiers into its standard legions (as all Italians were Roman citizens after the Social War). Its auxiliary troops were made up of foreigners from provinces distant to Rome, who gained Roman citizenship after completing their twenty five years of service. This system of foreign auxiliaries allowed the post-Marian army to strengthen traditional weak points of the Roman system, such as light missile troops and cavalry, with foreign specialists, especially as the richer classes took less and less part of military affairs and the Roman army lost much of its domestic cavalry. The Social War (also called the Italian War) was a war from 91 – 88 BC between the Roman Republic and the other cities in Italy. ...

At the beginning of the Imperial period the number of legions was 60, which Augustus more than halved to 28, numbering at approximately 160,000 men. As more territory was conquered throughout the Imperial period, this fluctuated into the mid-thirties. At the same time, at the beginning of the Imperial period the foreign auxiliaries made up a rather small portion of the military, but continued to rise, so that by the end of the period of the Five Good Emperors they probably equalled the legionnaires in number, giving a combined total of between 300,000 and 400,000 men in the Army. The Five Good Emperors. ...

Under Augustus and Trajan, the army had become a highly efficient and thoroughly professional body, brilliantly led and staffed. To Augustus fell the difficult task of retaining much that Caesar had created, but on a permanent peace-time footing. He did so by creating a standing army, made up of 28 legions, each one consisting of roughly 6000 men. Additional to these forces there was a similar number of auxiliary troops. Augustus also reformed the length of time a soldier served, increasing it from six to twenty years (16 years full service, 4 years on lighter duties). The standard of a legion, the so-called aquila (eagle) was the very symbol of the unit's honour. The aquilifer was the man who carried the standard, he was almost as high in rank as a centurion. It was this elevated and honourable position which also made him the soldiers' treasurer in charge of the pay chest. A legion on the march relied completely on its own resources for weeks. In addition to his weapons and armour, each man carried a marching pack that included a cooking pot, some rations, clothes and any personal possessions. Furthermore, to make camp each night every man carried tools for digging as well as two stakes for a palisade. Weighed down by such burdens it is little wonder that the soldiers were nicknamed 'Marius' Mules'. Augustus (plural Augusti) is Latin for majestic or venerable. The greek equivalent is sebastos, or a mere grecization (by changing of the ending) augustos. ... Emperor Trajan Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus (September 18, 53 – August 9, 117), Roman Emperor (98-117), commonly called Trajan, was the second of the so-called Five Good Emperors of the Roman Empire. ... The signa militaria were the Roman military ensigns or standards. ... An aquilifer was the standard bearer of a Roman legion. ... Sarcina as illustrated on Trajans Column. ... Sudes used as a simple picket fence. ...

There has over time been much debate regarding how much weight a legionary actually had to carry. Now, 30 kg (ca. 66 lbs) is generally considered the upper limit for an infantryman in modern day armies. Calculations have been made which, including the entire equipment and the 16 day's worth of rations, brings the weight to over 41 kg (ca. 93 lbs). And this estimate is made using the lightest possible weights for each item, it suggest the actual weight would have been even higher. This suggests that the sixteen days rations were not carried by the legionaries. the rations referred to in the old records might well have been a sixteen days ration of hard tack (buccellatum), usually used to supplement the daily corn ration (frumentum). By using it as an iron ration, it might have sustained a soldier for about three days. The weight of the buccellatum is estimated to have been about 3 kg, which, given that the corn rations would add more than 11 kg, means that without the corn, the soldier would have carried around 30 kg (66 lbs), pretty much the same weight as today's soldiers.

The necessity for a legion to undertake quite specialised tasks such as bridge building or engineering siege machines, required there to be specialists among their numbers. These men were known as the immunes, 'excused from regular duties'. Among them would be medical staff, surveyors, carpenters, veterinaries, hunters, armourers - even soothsayers and priests. When the legion was on the march, the chief duty of the surveyors would be to go ahead of the army, perhaps with a cavalry detachment, and to seek out the best place for the night's camp. In the forts along the empire's frontiers other non-combatant men could be found. For an entire bureaucracy was necessary to keep the army running. So scribes and supervisors, in charge of army pay, supplies and customs. Also there would be military police present.

As a unit, a legion was made up of ten cohorts, each of which was further divided into six centuries of eighty men, commanded by a centurion. The commander of the legion, the legatus, usually held his command for three or four years, usually as a preparation for a later term as provincial governor. The legatus, also referred to as general in much of modern literature, was surrounded by a staff of six officers. These were the military tribunes, who - if deemed capable by the legatus - might indeed command an entire section of a legion in battle. The tribunes, too, were political positions rather than purely military, the tribunus laticlavius being destined for the senate. Another man, who could be deemed part of the general's staff, was the centurio primus pilus. This was the most senior of all the centurions, commanding the first century of the first cohort, and therefore the man of the legion, when it was in the field, with the greatest experience (in Latin, "primus pilus" means "first javelin", as the primus pilus was allowed to hurl the first javelin in battle). The primus pilus also oversaw the everyday running of the forces.

1 Contubernium - 8 Men

10 Contubernia 1 Century 80 Men

2 Centuries 1 Maniple 160 Men

6 Centuries 1 Cohort 480 Men

10 Cohorts + 120 Horsemen 1 Legion 5240 Men *

• 1 Legion = 9 normal cohorts (9 x 480 Men) + 1 "First Cohort" of 5 centuries (but each century at the strength of a maniple, so 5 x 160 Men) + 120 Horsemen = 5240 Men

Together with non-combatants attached to the army, a legion would count around 6000 men. The 120 horsemen attached to each legion were used as scouts and dispatch riders. They were ranked with staff and other non-combatants and allocated to specific centuries, rather than belonging to a squadron of their own.

The senior professional soldiers in the legion was likely to be the camp prefect, praefectus castrorum. He was usually a man of some thirty years service, and was responsible for organization, training, and equipment.

Centurions, when it came to marching, had one considerable privilege over their men. Whereas the soldiers moved on foot, they rode on horseback. Another significant power they possessed was that of beating their soldiers. For this they would carry a staff, perhaps two or three foot long. Apart from his distinctive armour, this staff was one of the means by which one could recognise a centurion. One of the remarkable features of centurions is the way in which they were posted from legion to legion and province to province. It appears they were not only highly sought after men, but the army was willing to transport them over considerable distances to reach a new assignment. The most remarkable aspect of the centurionate though must be that they were not normally discharged but died in service. Thus, to a centurion the army was truly his life. Each centurion had an optio, so called because originally he was nominated by the centurion. The optiones ranked with the standard bearers as principales receiving double the pay of an ordinary soldier. The title optio ad spem ordinis was given to an optio who had been accepted for promotion to the centurionate, but who was waiting for a vacancy. Another officer in the century was the tesserarius, who was mainly responsible for small sentry pickets and fatigue parties, and so had to receive and pass on the watchword of the day. Finally there was the custos armorum who was in charge of the weapons and equipment.

Battle Order

Front Line 5th Cohort 4th Cohort 3rd Cohort 2nd Cohort 1st Cohort

Second Line 10th Cohort 9th Cohort 8th Cohort 7th Cohort 6th Cohort

The first cohort of any legion were its elite troops. So too the sixth cohort consisted of "the finest of the young men", the eighth contained "selected troops", the tenth cohort "good troops". The weakest cohorts were the 2nd, 4th, 7th and the 9th cohorts. It was in the 7th and 9th cohorts one would expect to find recruits in training.

The last major reform of the Imperial Army came under the reign of Diocletian in the late 3rd Century. During the instability that had marked most of that century, the army had fallen in number and lost much of its ability to effectively police and defend the empire. He quickly recruited a large number of men, increasing the number of legionnaires from between 150,000-200,000 to 350,000-400,000, effectively doubling the number in a case of quantity over quality. Emperor Diocletian Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (245?–312?), born Diocles, was Roman Emperor as Diocletian from November 20, 284 to May 1, 305. ... // Events The Sassanid dynasty of Persia launches a war to reconquer lost lands in the Roman east. ...

Weapons and equipment of the Army

• Amentum (thrower)
• Aquila (eagle)
• Arcus (bow)
• Ballista (catapult)
• Bracae (trousers)
• Caligae (boots)
• Focale (scarf)
• Funda (sling)
• Galea (helmet)
• Gladius (short sword)
• Hasta (thrusting spear)
• Lancea (lance)
• Loculus (satchel)
• Lorica hamata (chainmail armour)
• Lorica segmentata (segmented armour)
• Lorica squamata (scale armour)
• Onager
• Pilum (throwing spear)
• Plumbata (dart)
• Pugio (dagger)
• Sagittae (arrows)
• Sagum (cloak)
• Scutum (cylindrical shield)
• Siege engines
• Siege hook
• Spatha (long sword)

The term Aquila can refer to several things: Aquila is Latin for eagle. ... An arcus is a low, horizontal cloud formation associated with the leading edge of thunderstorm outflow (i. ... A Ballista The ballista (Latin, from Greek ballistēs, from ballein to throw, plural ballistae) is a powerful weapon resembling a giant crossbow, to eject heavy darts singly or in groups. ... A sling is a projectile weapon typically used to throw a blunt missile such as a stone, it is also known as the shepherds sling to distinguish it from other meanings. ... From left to right: Mainz, Fulham, Pompeii, and Pompeii Gladii. ... Hasta is a Latin word meaning spear. ... Loculus illustrated on Trajans Column hung from the canopy of a boat. ... The Lorica Hamata is a type of Chainmail armor used during the Roman Republic at late periods as a standard-issue armor for the secondary troops (Auxilia). ... A reenactor dressed as a Roman soldier in lorica segmentata The lorica segmentata was a type of armour primarily used in the Roman Empire, exploiting Hellenistic Greek technology, but the Latin name was first used in the 16th century (the ancient form is unknown). ... Roman scale armour fragment. ... The onager was a post-classical Roman siege engine, which derived its name from the kicking action of the machine, similar to that of an onager (wild ass). ... A Roman coin showing Antoninianus of Carinus holding pilum and globe. ... Plumbatae or Mattiobarbuli were lead-weighted darts carried by ancient Roman infantry. ... Pugio reconstruction: a Roman soldier from AD 70 Pugio reconstruction: a Roman soldier AD 175 from a northern province A pugio is a small dagger used by Roman soldiers. ... Scutum is the Latin word for any type of shield, although it has in modern times come to be associated with the standard semi-cylindrical type carried by Roman legionaries. ... A siege engine is a device that is designed to break or circumvent city walls and other fortifications in siege warfare. ... A siege hook is a weapon used to pull stones from a wall during a siege. ... The Spatha is a type of straight sword, measuring between 75 and 100 cm, in use throughout the 1st millennium AD. Introduced in the late Roman Empire in the 1st century AD as a cavalry weapon, the Spatha remained popular throughout the Migration period and the Viking Age, until it...

Roman navy

See main article, Roman Navy

The Roman Navy (Latin: Classis) operated between the First Punic war and the end of the Western Roman Empire. ...

History and evolution

The Roman navy was very much inferior, both in prestige and capability, to the Roman army. Before the First Punic War in 264 BC there was no Roman navy to speak of as all previous Roman war had been fought in Italy. But the war in Sicily against Carthage, a great naval power, forced Rome to quickly build a fleet and train sailors. The first few naval battles of the First Punic War were disasters for Rome, and it was not until the invention of the Corvus, a grappling engine which made it easier for Romans to board the Carthaginian vessels, that Rome was able to win the war. This meant that Rome could use her superior army in naval combat, and was a significant shift away from the tactics of all other navies at the time. The First Punic War was fought between Carthage and the Roman Republic from 264 to 241 BC. It was the first of three major wars between the two powers for supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC - 260s BC - 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC Years: 269 BC 268 BC 267 BC 266 BC 265 BC - 264 BC - 263 BC 262 BC... Sicilian disambiguates here; see also Sicilian language or Sicilian Defence. ... A map of the central Mediterranean Sea, showing the location of Carthage (near modern Tunis). ...

Rome was able to use her superior army in preference to her navy in most of the wars she fought afterwards. By the late Empire Roman control over the Mediterranean coast meant that there were no non-Roman navies to fight. Indeed, Rome's last major naval battle was fought between Romans, Octavian and Marc Antony, at Actium. However, she still maintained a large navy which patrolled not just the Mediterranean, but the various major rivers in the empire. Although the quality of the navy did degrade into the later imperial period, emperors such as Diocletian put significant effort into rebuilding the navy. The average estimate of manpower strength of the navy ranges from 50,000-100,000. The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental sea positioned between Europe to the north, Africa to the south and Asia to the east, covering an approximate area of 2. ... Augustus Caesar The title Caesar Augustus, given to every emperor of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire, originates from this person. ... Bust of Marcus Antonius Marcus Antonius (Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N¹) (c. ... Actium (mod. ... Emperor Diocletian Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (245?–312?), born Diocles, was Roman Emperor as Diocletian from November 20, 284 to May 1, 305. ...

Weapons and equipment of the Navy

• Corvus
• Quinterimes

A corvus (meaning raven in Latin) was a Roman military boarding device used in naval warfare during the First Punic War against Carthage. ... A quinterime (also quinquereme) is a three-decked galley used in ancient times by the Roman Republic, Roman Empire and the Carthaginians. ...

Events

Patterns of Roman wars

The first Roman wars were wars of expansion and defence, aimed at protecting Rome itself from neighbouring cities and nations by defeating them in battle. This sort of warfare characterized the early Republican Period when Rome was focused on consolidating its position in Italy, and eventually conquering the peninsula. Rome first began to make war outside the Italian peninsula in the Punic wars against Carthage. These wars, starting in 264 BC saw Rome become a Mediterranean power, with territory in Sicily, North Africa, Spain, and, after the Macedonian wars, Greece. One important point that must be understood is that the Rome did not conquer most nations outright, at least at first, but instead forced them into a submissive position as allies and client states. These allies supplied men, money, and supplies to Rome against other opponents. The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and the Phoenician city of Carthage. ... A map of the central Mediterranean Sea, showing the location of Carthage (near modern Tunis). ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC - 260s BC - 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC Years: 269 BC 268 BC 267 BC 266 BC 265 BC - 264 BC - 263 BC 262 BC... Sicilian disambiguates here; see also Sicilian language or Sicilian Defence. ... North Africa is a region generally considered to include: Algeria Egypt Libya Mauritania Morocco Sudan Tunisia Western Sahara The Azores, Canary Islands, and Madeira are sometimes considered to be a part of North Africa. ... History -- Military history -- War The Macedonian Wars were a series of four wars between ancient Rome, its allies, and Macedon. ... According to the notion of client states, just as a client of a corporation remains dependent on the corporation for a continued supply of products, and just as it is in the companys interest to make expendable products which need to be replaced regularly, client states of the two...

It wasn't until the late Republic that the expansion of the Republic started meaning actual annexation of large amounts of territory, however in this period, civil war became an increasingly common feature. In the last century before the common era at least 12 civil wars and rebellions occurred. These were generally started by one charismatic general who refused to surrender power to the Roman Senate, which appointed generals, and so had to be opposed by an army loyal to the Senate. This pattern did not break until Octavian (later Caesar Augustus) ended it by becoming a successful challenger to the Senate's authority, and was crowned emperor. There were several Roman civil wars, especially during the time of the late Republic. ... Bust of Augustus Caesar Augustus redirects here. ... An emperor is a (male) monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. ...

As the emperor was a centralized authority with power focused in Rome, this gave both a benefit and weakness to expansion under the Roman Empire. Under powerful and secure emperors such as Augustus and Trajan, great territorial gains were possible, but under weaker rulers such as Nero and Domitian, weakness resulted in nothing more than usurpation. One thing that all successful emperors had to accomplish was the loyalty of the legions throughout the empire. Weak emperors such as those relied upon generals to carry out their direct actions along the border, especially considering their requirement to stay in Rome to maintain power. This meant that often expansion in the empire came in leaps and bounds rather than a slow march. Another important point to remember is that many of the territories conquered in the imperial period were former client states of Rome whose regimes had degraded into instability, requiring armed intervention, often leading to outright annexation. The Roman Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Ancient Roman polity in the centuries following its reorganization under the leadership of Octavian (better known as Caesar Augustus), until its radical reformation in what was later to be known as the Byzantine Empire. ... Emperor Trajan Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus (September 18, 53 – August 9, 117), Roman Emperor (98-117), commonly called Trajan, was the second of the so-called Five Good Emperors of the Roman Empire. ... Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (December 15, 37–June 9, 68), born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called (50–54) Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus, was the fifth and last Roman Emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. ... Domitian bust in the Louvre Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 – 18 September 96), commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman emperor of the gens Flavia. ...

Unfortunately, the weakness of some emperors meant that these generals could wrest control of those legions away. The third century saw a crisis and a high number of civil wars similar to those that characterized the end of the Republic. Much like then, generals were wrestling control of power based upon the strength of the local legions under their command. Ironically, while it was these usurpations that lead to the break up of the Empire during that crisis, it was the strength of several frontier generals that helped reunify the empire through force of arms. Eventually, the dynastic structure of the imperial office returned due to the centralization of loyalty and control of the military once more, and then collapsed once again for the same reasons as before, leading to the destruction of the Western Half of the Empire. At this point, Roman military history becomes Byzantine military history. Crisis of the Third Century (also known as the Military Anarchy or the Imperial Crisis ) is a commonly applied name for the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 and 284 caused by the three simultaneous crises of external invasion, internal civil war and economic collapse. ... The Western Roman Empire is the name given to the western half of the Roman Empire after its division by Diocletian in 286. ...

List of Roman wars

See also List of Roman battles. The following is a List of Roman battles (fought by the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic, and the Roman Empire), organized by date. ...

The list below is not exhaustive, but it does list the major wars that Rome fought, against both external and internal enemies. Famous Roman generals are listed along with the war that they are most closely associated with. Because many of these wars occurred within the life time of one man, and often simultaneously, several generals served in more than one of the wars listed. As well, famous enemies of Rome are listed in association with the war they fought in.

The wars themselves are organized into Wars of Conquest where Rome was seeking to exterminate an external enemy and/or guarantee its security against an external enemy, Revolts & Rebellions where Rome was being threatened by its own generals or by conquered peoples, and External Invasions where Rome fought an invasion by an external enemy without turning the war into one of conquest.

Wars of conquest

• Samnite wars
  • First Samnite War - 343 BC to 341 BC
  • Second Samnite War - 327 BC to 321 BC and 316 BC to 304 BC
  • Third Samnite War - 298 BC to 290 BC
• Punic wars
  • First Punic War - 264 BC to 241 BC
    • Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, the Cunctator
  • Second Punic War - 218 BC to 202 BC
    • Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus
    • Hannibal of the Second Punic War
  • Third Punic War - 149 BC to 146 BC
    • Scipio Aemilianus
• Macedonian wars
  • First Macedonian War - 215 BC to 205 BC
  • Second Macedonian War - 200 BC to 196 BC
  • Third Macedonian War - 171 BC to 168 BC
  • Fourth Macedonian War - 150 BC to 148 BC
• Jugurthine War - 122 BC to 105 BC
• Mithridatic wars
  • • Mithridates VI of Pontus (all three wars)
  • First Mithridatic War - 88 BC to 84 BC
  • Second Mithridatic War - 83 BC to 81 BC
  • Third Mithridatic War - 75 BC to 65 BC
    • Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus
• Gallic Wars - 58 BC to 51 BC
  • Julius Caesar
  • Vercingetorix
• Cantabrian Wars - 29 BC to 19 BC
• Augustus' German Wars - to 9
  • Arminius
  • Publius Quinctilius Varus
• Roman invasion of Britain and Scotland - 43 to 80
  • Gnaeus Julius Agricola
• Trajan's Dacian Campaigns - 101 to 102 and 105 to 106
• Trajan's Parthian Campaign - 113 to 117

The Samnite Wars were three wars between the early Roman Republic and the tribes of Samnium. ... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 390s BC - 380s BC - 370s BC - 360s BC - 350s BC - 340s BC _ 330s BC - 320s BC - 310s BC - 300s BC - 290s BC 348 BC 347 BC 346 BC 345 BC 344 BC 343 BC 342 BC 341 BC... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 390s BC 380s BC 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC - 340s BC - 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 346 BC 345 BC 344 BC 343 BC 342 BC 341 BC 340 BC 339 BC 338... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC - 320s BC - 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 332 BC 331 BC 330 BC 329 BC 328 BC - 327 BC - 326 BC 325 BC 324... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC - 320s BC - 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 326 BC 325 BC 324 BC 323 BC 322 BC - 321 BC - 320 BC 319 BC 318... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 321 BC 320 BC 319 BC 318 BC 317 BC 316 BC 315 BC 314 BC 313... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 350s BC 340s BC 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 309 BC 308 BC 307 BC 306 BC 305 BC 304 BC 303 BC 302 BC 301... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 340s BC 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC Years: 303 BC 302 BC 301 BC 300 BC 299 BC - 298 BC - 297 BC 296 BC... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 340s BC 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 295 BC 294 BC 293 BC 292 BC 291 BC 290 BC 289 BC 288 BC 287... The Punic Wars were a series of three wars fought between Rome and the Phoenician city of Carthage. ... The First Punic War was fought between Carthage and the Roman Republic from 264 to 241 BC. It was the first of three major wars between the two powers for supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC - 260s BC - 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC Years: 269 BC 268 BC 267 BC 266 BC 265 BC - 264 BC - 263 BC 262 BC... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 290s BC 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC - 240s BC - 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 246 BC 245 BC 244 BC 243 BC 242 BC - 241 BC - 240 BC 239 BC 238... Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus (c. ... The Second Punic War was fought between Carthage and Rome from 218 to 202 BC. It was the second of three major wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage, and the Roman Republic, then still confined to the Italian Peninsula. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC - 210s BC - 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC Years: 223 BC 222 BC 221 BC 220 BC 219 BC - 218 BC - 217 BC 216 BC... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 3rd century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC Years: 207 BC 206 BC 205 BC 204 BC 203 BC - 202 BC - 201 BC 200 BC 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC Events October... Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major (Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS) (236 - 183 BC) was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic. ... Hannibals feat in crossing the Alps with war elephants passed into European legend: a fresco detail, 1510, Capitoline Museums, Rome Hannibal (from Punic, literally Baal is merciful to me, 247 BC – 182 BC) was a politician, statesman and considered one of the greatest military commanders in history. ... The Second Punic War was fought between Carthage and Rome from 218 to 202 BC. It was the second of three major wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage, and the Roman Republic, then still confined to the Italian Peninsula. ... The Third Punic War was fought between Carthage and the Rome from 149 BC to 146 BC. It was the third of three major wars fought between the former Phoenician colony of Carthage, and the Roman Republic. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC - 140s BC - 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC Years: 154 BC 153 BC 152 BC 151 BC 150 BC - 149 BC - 148 BC 147 BC... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC - 140s BC - 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC Years: 151 BC 150 BC 149 BC 148 BC 147 BC - 146 BC - 145 BC 144 BC... Storybook illustration depicting Scipio as the reluctant servant of the Senate as he orchestrated the genocide of the Carthaginians. ... The First Macedonian War (215 BC - 205 BC) was fought by Rome, allied (after 211 BC) with the Aetolian League and Attalus I of Pergamon, against Philip V of Macedon, contemporaneously with the Second Punic War against Carthage. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC - 210s BC - 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC Years: 220 BC 219 BC 218 BC 217 BC 216 BC - 215 BC - 214 BC 213 BC... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 210 BC 209 BC 208 BC 207 BC 206 BC - 205 BC - 204 BC 203 BC... The Second Macedonian War (200–196 BC) was fought between Rome, allied with Pergamum and Rhodes, and Philip V of Macedon. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 205 BC 204 BC 203 BC 202 BC 201 BC - 200 BC - 199 BC 198 BC... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC - 190s BC - 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC Years: 201 BC 200 BC 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC - 196 BC - 195 BC 194 BC... The Third Macedonian War (171 BC - 168 BC) was a war fought between Rome and King Perseus of Macedon. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC - 170s BC - 150s BC140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC Years: 176 BC 175 BC 174 BC 173 BC 172 BC - 171 BC - 170 BC 169 BC 168... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC - 160s BC - 150s BC140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC Years: 173 BC 172 BC 171 BC 170 BC 169 BC - 168 BC - 167 BC 166 BC 165... The Fourth Macedonian War (150 BC - 148 BC) was the final war between Rome and Macedon. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC - 150s BC - 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC Years: 155 BC 154 BC 153 BC 152 BC 151 BC - 150 BC - 149 BC 148 BC... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC - 140s BC - 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC Years: 153 BC 152 BC 151 BC 150 BC 149 BC - 148 BC - 147 BC 146 BC... The Jugurthine War (122-105 BC) was fought between the Roman Republic and Jugurtha, the renegade king of the African client state of Numidia. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC - 120s BC - 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC Years: 127 BC 126 BC 125 BC 124 BC 123 BC - 122 BC - 121 BC 120 BC... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC - 100s BC - 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC Years: 110 BC 109 BC 108 BC 107 BC 106 BC - 105 BC - 104 BC 103 BC... Mithridates VI of Pontus, (132 BC- 63 BC), called Eupator Dionysius, also known as Mithridates the Great, was the king of Pontus in Asia Minor and one of Romes most formidable and successful enemies. ... The First Mithridatic War was fought between the Roman Republic and Mithridates VI Eupator Dionysius, the king of Pontus. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC - 80s BC - 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC Years: 93 BC 92 BC 91 BC 90 BC 89 BC - 88 BC - 87 BC 86 BC 85... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC - 80s BC - 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC Years: 89 BC 88 BC 87 BC 86 BC 85 BC - 84 BC - 83 BC 82 BC 81... The Second Mithridatic War (83-82 BCE) was fought between King Mithridates VI of Pontus and the Roman general Lucius Murena At the end of the First Mithridatic War, Sulla had left Mithridates in control of his kingdom of Pontus. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC - 80s BC - 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC Years: 88 BC 87 BC 86 BC 85 BC 84 BC - 83 BC - 82 BC 81 BC 80... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC - 80s BC - 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC Years: 86 BC 85 BC 84 BC 83 BC 82 BC - 81 BC - 80 BC 79 BC 78... Third Mithridatic War (75 - 65 BC) Mithridates VI had long been a thorn in Romes side, having launched two wars against the Roman Republic, in the early 1st century B.C. In response to the chaos in Rome, following the terror of Marius and Sullas dictatorship, the Empire... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC - 70s BC - 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC Years: 80 BC 79 BC 78 BC 77 BC 76 BC - 75 BC - 74 BC 73 BC 72... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC - 60s BC - 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC Years: 70 BC 69 BC 68 BC 67 BC 66 BC 65 BC 64 BC 63 BC 62... Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus (229 BC-160 BC) was a Roman general and politician. ... Map of Gaul circa 58 BC The Gallic Wars were a series of wars fought between the Romans and the people of Gaul during the mid-first century BC, culminating in the Battle of Alesia in 52 BC which resulted in the expansion of the Roman Republic across Gaul. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC - 50s BC - 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC Years: 63 BC 62 BC 61 BC 60 BC 59 BC 58 BC 57 BC 56 BC 55... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC - 50s BC - 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC Years: 56 BC 55 BC 54 BC 53 BC 52 BC 51 BC 50 BC 49 BC 48... Bust of Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (Classical Latin: IMP·C·IVLIVS·CAESAR·DIVVS) (b. ... Vercingetorix (72 BC - 46 BC), (French: Vercingétorix) chieftain of the Arverni, led the great Gallic revolt against the Romans in 53-52 BC. His name in Gaulish means king of the marching men; the marching men would now be called infantry. His name was pronounced, in Gaulish (and therefore... The Cantabrian Wars (29 BC-19 BC) occurred during the Roman conquest of the ancient province of Cantabria. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC - 20s BC - 10s BC 0s 10s 20s 30s Years: 34 BC 33 BC 32 BC 31 BC 30 BC 29 BC 28 BC 27 BC 26 BC 25 BC 24... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC - 10s BC - 0s 10s 20s 30s 40s Years: 24 BC 23 BC 22 BC 21 BC 20 BC 19 BC 18 BC 17 BC 16 BC 15 BC 14 BC...   This article is about the year 9. ... The Hermannsdenkmal Arminius (16 BC-AD 21), in Germany also frequently called Hermann der Cherusker, was a war chief of the Germanic tribe of the Cherusci. ... Publius Quinctilius Varus (46 BC-9 AD) was a Roman politician and general under Augustus Caesar, mainly remembered for having lost three Roman legions and his own life when attacked by Germanic leader Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (in Germania). ... Roman invasion of Britain: Britain was the target of invasion by forces of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire several times during its history. ... For alternate uses, see Number 43. ... For other uses, see number 80. ... Gnaeus Julius Agricola (July 13, 40 - August 23, 93) was a Roman general responsible for much of the Roman conquest of Britain. ... Dacia, in ancient geography the land of the Daci, a subtribe of the Getae, was a large district of Central Europe, bounded on the north by the Carpathians, on the south by the Danube, on the west by the Tisa (Tisza river, in Hungary), on the east by the Tyras... For other uses, see number 101. ... For other uses, see number 102. ... Events The Chinese refine papermaking. ... For other uses, see number 106. ... Parthian Empire at its greatest extent, c60 BC. The Parthian Empire was the dominating force on the Iranian plateau beginning in the late 3rd century BCE, and intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca 190 BCE and 224 CE. Parthia was the arch-enemy of the Roman Empire in the east and... Events Trajan starts an expedition against Armenia. ... Events Emperor Trajan dies, leaving the Roman Empire at its maximal territorial extent. ...

Revolts and rebellions

• Lusitanian War - 147 BC to 139 BC
• Roman Republican civil wars
  • First Servile War - 135 BC to 132 BC
  • Second Servile War - 104 BC to 103 BC
  • Social War - 91 BC to 88 BC
  • Sulla's first civil war - 88 BC to 87 BC
  • Sertorius' Spanish revolt - 83 BC to 72 BC
  • Sulla's second civil war - 82 BC to 81 BC
  • Spartacus slave rebellion - 79 BC
  • Third Servile War - 73 BC to 71 BC
  • Catiline Conspiracy - 63 BC to 62 BC
  • Caesar's civil war - 49 BC to 45 BC
  • Post-Caesarian civil war - 44 BC
  • The Liberators' civil war - 44 BC to 42 BC
  • Sicilian revolt - 44 BC to 36 BC
  • Fulvia's civil war - 41 BC to 40 BC
  • Antony's civil war - 32 BC to 30 BC
• Icenii Rebellion - 61
  • Boudica
  • Quintus Petillius Cerialis
• Jewish Revolts
  • Great Jewish_Revolt - 66 to 70
    • Vespasian
  • Bar Kokhba's Revolt
    • Simon bar Kokhba - 132 to 135
• Year of the four emperors - 69
• Batavian rebellion - 69 to 70
  • Gaius Julius Civilis
  • Suetonius Paullinus
  • Viriathus
• Crisis of the Third Century
  • Rebellion of Palmyra - 267 to 272
    • Zenobia
  • Gallic Empire - 259 to 274

Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC - 140s BC - 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC Years: 152 BC 151 BC 150 BC 149 BC 148 BC - 147 BC - 146 BC 145 BC... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC - 130s BC - 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC Years: 144 BC 143 BC 142 BC 141 BC 140 BC - 139 BC - 138 BC 137 BC... There were several Roman civil wars, especially during the time of the late Republic. ... The First Servile War was an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Romans on the island of Sicily. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC - 130s BC - 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC Years: 140 BC 139 BC 138 BC 137 BC 136 BC - 135 BC - 134 BC 133 BC... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC - 130s BC - 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC Years: 137 BC 136 BC 135 BC 134 BC 133 BC - 132 BC - 131 BC 130 BC... The Second Servile War was an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Romans on the island of Sicily. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC - 100s BC - 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC Years: 109 BC 108 BC 107 BC 106 BC 105 BC - 104 BC - 103 BC 102 BC... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC - 100s BC - 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC Years: 108 BC 107 BC 106 BC 105 BC 104 BC - 103 BC - 102 BC 101 BC... The Social War (also called the Italian War) was a war from 91 – 88 BC between the Roman Republic and the other cities in Italy. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC - 90s BC - 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC Years: 96 BC 95 BC 94 BC 93 BC 92 BC - 91 BC - 90 BC 89 BC 88... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC - 80s BC - 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC Years: 93 BC 92 BC 91 BC 90 BC 89 BC - 88 BC - 87 BC 86 BC 85... Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (Latin: L·CORNELIVS·L·F·P·N·SVLLA·FELIX) ¹ (ca. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC - 80s BC - 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC Years: 93 BC 92 BC 91 BC 90 BC 89 BC - 88 BC - 87 BC 86 BC 85... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC - 80s BC - 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC Years: 92 BC 91 BC 90 BC 89 BC 88 BC - 87 BC - 86 BC 85 BC 84... Quintus Sertorius (died 72 BC), Roman statesman and general. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC - 80s BC - 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC Years: 88 BC 87 BC 86 BC 85 BC 84 BC - 83 BC - 82 BC 81 BC 80... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC - 70s BC - 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC Years: 77 BC 76 BC 75 BC 74 BC 73 BC - 72 BC - 71 BC 70 BC 69... Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix (Latin: L·CORNELIVS·L·F·P·N·SVLLA·FELIX) ¹ (ca. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC - 80s BC - 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC Years: 87 BC 86 BC 85 BC 84 BC 83 BC - 82 BC - 81 BC 80 BC 79... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC - 80s BC - 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC Years: 86 BC 85 BC 84 BC 83 BC 82 BC - 81 BC - 80 BC 79 BC 78... Kirk Douglas in the title role of the 1960 film Spartacus. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC - 70s BC - 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC Years: 84 BC 83 BC 82 BC 81 BC 80 BC - 79 BC - 78 BC 77 BC 76... The Third Servile War was an unsuccessful slave uprising against the Romans in Italy, under command of the famous Spartacus. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC - 70s BC - 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC Years: 78 BC 77 BC 76 BC 75 BC 74 BC - 73 BC - 72 BC 71 BC 70... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 120s BC 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC - 70s BC - 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC Years: 76 BC 75 BC 74 BC 73 BC 72 BC - 71 BC - 70 BC 69 BC 68... Catiline (Lucius Sergius Catilina) (108 BC-62 BC) was a Roman politician of the 1st century BC who is best known for the Catiline (or Catilinarian) conspiracy, an attempt to overthrow the Roman Republic, and in particular the power of the aristocratic Senate. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC - 60s BC - 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC Years: 68 BC 67 BC 66 BC 65 BC 64 BC 63 BC 62 BC 61 BC 60... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 110s BC 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC - 60s BC - 50s BC 40s BC 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC Years: 67 BC 66 BC 65 BC 64 BC 63 BC 62 BC 61 BC 60 BC 59... Bust of Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (Classical Latin: IMP·C·IVLIVS·CAESAR·DIVVS) (b. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC - 40s BC - 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 0s Years: 54 BC 53 BC 52 BC 51 BC 50 BC 49 BC 48 BC 47 BC 46 BC... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC - 40s BC - 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 0s Years: 50 BC 49 BC 48 BC 47 BC 46 BC 45 BC 44 BC 43 BC 42 BC... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC - 40s BC - 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 0s Years: 49 BC 48 BC 47 BC 46 BC 45 BC 44 BC 43 BC 42 BC 41 BC... Brutus is a Roman cognomen used by several politicians of the Junii family, especially in the Roman Republic. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC - 40s BC - 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 0s Years: 49 BC 48 BC 47 BC 46 BC 45 BC 44 BC 43 BC 42 BC 41 BC... Events October 3 - First Battle of Philippi: The Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesars assassins Marcus Junius Brutus and Cassius. ... Sicilian disambiguates here; see also Sicilian language or Sicilian Defence. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC - 40s BC - 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 0s Years: 49 BC 48 BC 47 BC 46 BC 45 BC 44 BC 43 BC 42 BC 41 BC... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC - 30s BC - 20s BC 10s BC 0s 10s 20s Years: 41 BC 40 BC 39 BC 38 BC 37 BC 36 BC 35 BC 34 BC 33 BC 32 BC... Fulvia (died 40 BC) was a Roman matron remembered by her ambition and political activity, in a time when women were expected to stay home and live with virtue and modesty, according to Roman morals. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC - 40s BC - 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 0s Years: 46 BC 45 BC 44 BC 43 BC 42 BC 41 BC 40 BC 39 BC 38 BC... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC - 40s BC - 30s BC 20s BC 10s BC 0s BC 10s BC Years: 45 BC 44 BC 43 BC 42 BC 41 BC 40 BC 39 BC 38 BC 37... Bust of Mark Antony Marcus Antonius (Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N¹) (ca. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC - 30s BC - 20s BC 10s BC 0s 10s 20s Years: 37 BC 36 BC 35 BC 34 BC 33 BC 32 BC 31 BC 30 BC 29 BC 28 BC... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC - 30s BC - 20s BC 10s BC 0s 10s 20s Years: 35 BC 34 BC 33 BC 32 BC 31 BC 30 BC 29 BC 28 BC 27 BC 26 BC... For other uses, see number 61. ... Boudica (also written Boudicca, Boadicea, Buduica, Bonduca) (d. ... Quintus Petilius Cerialis Caesius Rufus (born around 30 AD) was a Roman general of the 1st century. ... The Great Jewish Revolt (66–73 CE), sometimes called The first Jewish-Roman War, was the first of two major rebellions by the Jews of Judea against the Roman Empire (the second was Bar Kokhbas revolt in 132-135). ... For other uses, see number 66. ... Centuries: 1st century BC - 1st century - 2nd century Decades: 20s 30s 40s 50s 60s - 70s - 80s 90s 100s 110s 120s Years: 65 66 67 68 69 - 70 - 71 72 73 74 75 Events The building of the Colosseum starts (approximate date). ... Emperor Vespasian Caesar Vespasianus Augustus (November 18, 9 – June 23, 79), originally known as Titus Flavius Vespasianus and best known as Vespasian, was the emperor of Rome from 69 to 79. ... Bar Kokhba’s revolt (132-135 CE) against the Roman Empire, also known as The Second Jewish-Roman War or The Second Jewish Revolt, was a second major rebellion by the Jews of Iudaea. ... Simon bar Kokhba was a Jewish military leader who led Bar Kokhbas revolt against the Romans in 132, establishing an independent state of Israel which he ruled for three years as Nasi (prince, or president). His state was conquered by the Romans in 135 following a two-year war. ... Events The messianic, leader Simon bar Kokhba starts a war of liberation against the Romans, which is crushed by emperor Hadrian. ... For other uses, see number 135. ... The forced suicide of emperor Nero, in 68 AD, was followed by a brief period of civil war (the first Roman civil war since Antonys death in 31 BC) known as the Year of the four emperors. ... Centuries: 1st century BC - 1st century - 2nd century Decades: 10s 20s 30s 40s 50s - 60s - 70s 80s 90s 100s 110s Years: 64 65 66 67 68 - 69 - 70 71 72 73 74 Events The Year of the four emperors: After Neros death, Galba, Otho and Vitellius are all Roman... The Batavian rebellion took place in the Roman province of Germania Inferior between 69 and 70 AD. The rebels led by Civilis managed to destroy four legions and inflicted humiliating defeats on the Roman army. ... Centuries: 1st century BC - 1st century - 2nd century Decades: 10s 20s 30s 40s 50s - 60s - 70s 80s 90s 100s 110s Years: 64 65 66 67 68 - 69 - 70 71 72 73 74 Events The Year of the four emperors: After Neros death, Galba, Otho and Vitellius are all Roman... Centuries: 1st century BC - 1st century - 2nd century Decades: 20s 30s 40s 50s 60s - 70s - 80s 90s 100s 110s 120s Years: 65 66 67 68 69 - 70 - 71 72 73 74 75 Events The building of the Colosseum starts (approximate date). ... Gaius Julius Civilis was the leader of the Batavian rebellion against the Romans in 69 AD. By his name, it can be told that he (or one of his male ancestors) was made a Roman citizen (and thus, the tribe a Roman vassal) by either Augustus Caesar or Caligula. ... Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, also spelled Paullinus, (flourished 1st century CE) was a Roman general. ... Viriathus (known as Viriato in Portuguese and Castilian) (180 BC - 139 BC) was the most important leader of the Lusitanian tribe that resisted Roman expansion into the regions of Western Iberia, were the Roman province of Lusitania would be established (in the areas comprising Portugal, south of the Douro river... Crisis of the Third Century (also known as the Military Anarchy or the Imperial Crisis ) is a commonly applied name for the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 and 284 caused by the three simultaneous crises of external invasion, internal civil war and economic collapse. ... Palmyra (now Tadmor,تدمر, Syria) was an ancient city in central Syria, located on an oasis about 210 km (130 mi) northeast of Damascus. ... Events Goths launch one of the first major barbarian invasions of the Roman Empire. ... Events Roman emperor Aurelian reconquers the kingdom of Palmyra (Egypt and large parts of Asia Minor), forcing queen Zenobia to flee to Parthia. ... Zenobia coin reporting her title, Augusta. ... The Gallic Empire (in Latin, imperium Galliarum) is the modern name for the independent realm that lived a brief existence during the Roman Empires Crisis of the Third Century, from 260 to 274. ... Events Postumus revolts against Gallienus, in Gaul. ... Events The Gallic Empire (Gaul and Britain) is reconquered by Roman Emperor Aurelian With the conquests of the Palmyran Empire (272) and the Gallic Empire, the Roman Empire is united again Births Deaths Pope Felix I Cao Fang, emperor of the Kingdom of Wei Categories: 274 ...

External invasions

• Invasion by the Cimbri and Teutoni - 113 BC to 102 BC
  • Gaius Marius
• Invasion by the Marcomanni - 166 to 180
• Persian Invasions
  • Shapur I of Persia
  • Shapur II of Persia
  • Khosrau I
  • Khosrau II
• Gothic Invasions - chronic after 267
  • Alaric
• Hun Invasion 440 to 453
  • Attila the Hun

The migrations of the Teutons and the Cimbri The Cimbri were a Proto-Germanic tribe who according to Pliny the Elder lived on Jutland (Chersonesus Cimbrica), and the Jutish region of Himmerland (where the contemporary Gundestrup cauldron was found) is thought to preserve their name (cf. ... This entry is about the Teutonic people, not to be confused with the Teutonic Knights. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC - 110s BC - 100s BC 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC Years: 118 BC 117 BC 116 BC 115 BC 114 BC - 113 BC - 112 BC 111 BC... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC - 100s BC - 90s BC 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC Years: 107 BC 106 BC 105 BC 104 BC 103 BC - 102 BC - 101 BC 100 BC... Gaius Marius (Latin: C·MARIVS·C·F·C·N) (157 - January 13, 86 BC) was a Roman general and politician who was mostly known for his reform of Roman armies. ... The Marcomanni were a Germanic tribe, probably related to the Suebi or Suevi. ... Events Pope Soter succeeds Pope Anicetus Change of Patriarch of Constantinople from Patriarch Laurence to Patriarch Alypius Dacia invaded by barbarians Conflict erupts on the Danube frontier between Rome and the Germanic tribe of the Marcomanni Roman envoy sent out by emperor Antoninus Pius. ... For other uses, see number 180. ... Shapur I, son of Ardashir I, was king of Persia from 241 to 272. ... Shapur II the Great was king of Persia (309 - 379). ... Khosrau I, the Blessed (Anushirvan), (531 - 579) was the favourite son and successor of Kavadh I, and the most famous of the Sassanid kings. ... Khosrau II, the Victorious (Parvez), king of Persia, son of Hormizd IV, grandson of Khosrau I, 590 - 628. ... Invasion of the Goths: a late 19th century painting by O. Fritsche portrays the Goths as cavalrymen. ... Events Goths launch one of the first major barbarian invasions of the Roman Empire. ... An 1894 photogravure of Alaric I taken from a painting by Ludwig Thiersch. ... The Huns were a group of Central Asian nomadic tribes, who appeared in Europe in the 4th century. ... Events September 29 - Leo succeeds Sixtus as Pope. ... Events Theodoric II succeeds his brother Thorismund as king of the Visigoths. ... The Huns, led by Attila (right, foreground), ride into Italy. ...

See also

• List of Roman military terms
• Roman military diploma
• Principal passes of the Alps
• History
• Ancient History
• Ancient Rome
• Military history
• History of warfare

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Military history of the Roman Empire