Millet (stress on the e) is an Ottoman Turkish term for a confessional community in the Ottoman Empire. In the 19th century, with the Tanzimat reforms, the term started to refer to a legally protected ethnic and religious minority group, other than the ruling Sunni. Millet comes from the Arabic word milla (ملة). Ottoman Turkish (Turkish: Osmanlıca or Osmanlı Türkçesi, Ottoman Turkish: لسان عثمانی - lisân-i Osmânî) is the variant of the Turkish language that was used as the administrative and literary language of the Ottoman Empire. ... Confessional community is a term refering to grouping based on similarity. ... Imperial motto (Ottoman Turkish) دولت ابد مدت Devlet-i Ebed-müddet (The Eternal State) The Ottoman Empire at the height of its power (1683) Official language Ottoman Turkish Capital Söğüt (1299-1326), Bursa (1326-1365), Edirne (1365-1453), Constantinople (1453-1922) Imperial anthem Ottoman imperial anthem Sovereigns Padishah of the Osmanl... Graphical timeline Caricature; changes in the form, not in the mind The Tanzimat was a period of reform in the Ottoman Empire that lasted from 1839 to 1876. ... A minority or subordinate group is a sociological group that does not constitute a politically dominant plurality of the total population of a given society. ... Sunni Islam (Arabic سنّة) is the largest denomination of Islam. ... The Arabic language (Arabic: ‎ transliterated: ), or simply Arabic (Arabic: ‎ transliterated: ), is the largest member of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family (classification: South Central Semitic) and is closely related to Hebrew and Aramaic. ...

Concept

The millet concept has a similarity to autonomous territories that has long been the European norm for dealing with minority groups. The millet system has a long history in the Middle East, and is closely linked to Islamic rules on the treatment of non-Muslim minorities (dhimmi). The Ottoman term specifically refers to the separate legal courts pertaining to personal law under which minorities were allowed to rule themselves (in cases not involving any Muslim) with fairly little interference from the Ottoman government. An autonomous (subnational) entity is a subnational entity that has a certain amount of autonomy. ... For other uses, including people named Islam, see Islam (disambiguation). ... A dhimmi (also zimmi, Arabic: ‎, plural: اهل الذمۃ, ahl al-dhimma) was a free (i. ... The Ottoman Empire developed a highly advanced organisation of state over the centuries. ...

Each millet was under the supervision of an Ethnarch ('national' leader), most often a religious hierarch such as the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Constantinople, who reported directly to the Ottoman Sultan. The millets had a great deal of power - they set their own laws and collected and distributed their own taxes. All that was insisted was loyalty to the Empire. When a member of one millet committed a crime against a member of another, the law of the injured party applied, but the - ruling - Islamic majority being paramount, any dispute involving a Muslim fell under their sharia-based law. Ethnarch refers generally to political leadership over a common ethnic group or heterogeneous kingdom. ... The Patriarch of Constantinople is the Ecumenical Patriarch, ranking as the first among equals in the Eastern Orthodox communion. ... The Osmanli Dynasty, also the House of Osman, ruled the Ottoman Empire from 1281 to 1923, beginning with Osman I (not counting his father, Ertuğrul), though the dynasty was not proclaimed until 1383 when Murad I declared himself sultan. ... Sharia (Arabic: ‎ translit: ) refers to the body of Islamic law. ...

Millets

Beside the Muslim millet, the main millets were the Greek Orthodox, Jewish and Armenian ones.^[1] The Greeks (Greek: Έλληνες – Hellenes) are an ethnic group mostly found in the southern Balkan peninsula of southeastern Europe and are primarily associated with the Greek language. ... This article describes some ethnic, historic, and cultural aspects of the Jewish identity; for a consideration of the Jewish religion, refer to the article Judaism. ...

A wide array of other groups such as Catholics, Karaites and Samaritans were also represented. Karaite Judaism is a Jewish denomination characterized by the sole reliance on the Tanakh as scripture, and the rejection of the Oral Law (the Mishnah and the Talmud) as halakha (Legally Binding, i. ... For other uses, see Samaritan (disambiguation). ...

On the other hand creeds which were seen as deviant forms of the Caliphal dynasty's Sunni Islam, such as Shi'as, Alawis, Alevis and Yezidis, had no official status and were generally considered to be part of the Muslim millet — only the syncretic Druzes of the Djebel Druze and the Mount Lebanon enjoyed a rather feudal-type autonomy (like the Assyrian Christian villages under Mar Shimun in the Hakkari mountains). These groups were spread across the empire with significant minorities in most of the major cities. Autonomy for these groups was thus impossible to base on a territorial region. Shiʻa Islam (Arabic شيعى follower; English has traditionally used Shiite) makes up the second largest sect of believers in Islam, constituting about 30%–35% of all Muslim. ... Alawite is a Middle Eastern Syria. ... Alevis (Turkish: Aleviler) are adherents of a branch of Shia Islam and their belief contains shades of pre-Islamic religions of Anatolia and ancient Turkic Shamanism. ... The Yezidi or Yazidi (Kurdish; Êzidî) are adherents of a small Middle Eastern religion with ancient origins. ... Syncretism is the attempt to reconcile disparate, even opposing, beliefs and to meld practices of various schools of thought. ... The Druze (Arabic: derzÄ« درزي, pl. ... The western slopes of Jabal el Druze Jabal el Druze (Druze Mountain, also known as Jabal el Arab) (Arabic: جبل الدروز) is an 1803-metre mountain in southern Syria, in the As Suwaydā governorate (mohofazat Souweida). ... Mount Lebanon, as a geographic name Mount Lebanon, as a geographic designation, is the mountain range that extends across the whole country of Lebanon along about 160 km (100 mi), parallel to the Mediterranean coast and rising to 3,090 m (10,137 ft). ... The Holy Apostolic and Catholic Assyrian Church of the East under His Holiness Mar Dinkha IV, is a Christian church that traces its origins to the See of Babylon, said to be founded by Saint Thomas the Apostle. ... The Patriarch of Babylon, also called the Assyrian Patriarch, is the leader of the Assyrian Church of the East. ... Hakkâri, formerly Çölemerik, is the capital city of the Hakkâri il, Turkey. ...

Muslims

Muslim communities prospered the most under the Ottoman Empire, as the Sultan was also the Caliph. Ottoman law did not recognize such notions as ethnicity or citizenship, thus, a Muslim of any ethnic background enjoyed precisely the same rights and privileges. It was claimed that under such conditions, Muslim Arabs came to view the empire as a revived Islamic empire. However, even if Caliphate played a significant role, the real existence of these feelings is questionable long before the Arab Revolt and the subsequent dissolution of the empire in 20th century. By the 17th century, the Barbaresque Maghreb regencies were only nominally under the Ottoman control and Egypt was almost independent by the beginning of the 19th century. The Ottoman Empire, at its height, covered a significant portion of the Mediterranean World, including portions of three continents. ... This article or section should be merged with ethnic group Ethnicity is the cultural characteristics that connect a particular group or groups of people to each other. ... Citizenship is membership in a political community (originally a city but now usually a state) and carries with it rights to political participation; a person having such membership is a citizen. ... ... Flag of the Arab Revolt This article is about the Arab Revolt of 1916. ... // Balkan Wars The Ottoman army in the balkans was large and appeared on the surface to be modern. ... The Algerian bay (view from the west). ...

Christians

Phanariot Greeks

Main article: Phanariotes

From an early date, Greek citizens of Constantinople were able to achieve high positions in the fields of commerce, politics, religion, and the military. The Patriarch of Constantinople, for example, developed a great degree of power, both religious and political, but was still very tightly controlled by the state. Phanariot Greeks even worked as the sultan's statesmen in Western Europe and as local rulers in the Balkans; and Aegean Greeks were granted wide commercial rights and also developed a fleet that quickly became the empire's maritime weapon. In fact, some Greek citizens prospered to such a degree that they eventually opposed the Greek War of Independence of 1821–1831, afraid to lose their privileged position in the imperial capital. Phanariotes or Phanariot Greeks (Greek: Φαναριώτες, Romanian: FanarioÅ£i) - were the members of those principal Greek families who resided in Phanar (Fener in Turkish, from the Greek word Φανάρι, Phanari - Lighthouse), the chief Greek quarter of Istanbul - where the ecumenical patriarchate is situated. ... The Patriarch of Constantinople is the Ecumenical Patriarch, ranking as the first among equals in the Eastern Orthodox communion. ... Phanariotes or Phanariot Greeks (Greek: Φαναριώτες, Romanian: FanarioÅ£i) - were the members of those principal Greek families who resided in Phanar (Fener in Turkish, from the Greek word Φανάρι, Phanari - Lighthouse), the chief Greek quarter of Istanbul - where the ecumenical patriarchate is situated. ... Combatants Greek revolutionaries, Great Britain, Russia, France Ottoman Empire, Egyptian troops Commanders Theodoros Kolokotronis, Alexander Ypsilanti Omer Vrionis, Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt. ...

On the other hand, the Christian population in the Balkans was practically devoid of any rights preventng it for centuries to develop above the level of peasantry. Any signs of dissent were harshly suppressed (e.g. see April Uprising). Development of the April Uprising The April Uprising (Bulgarian: Априлско въстание) was an insurrection organised by the Bulgarians in the Ottoman Empire from April to May 1876, the indirect result of which was the liberation of Bulgaria in 1878. ...

Armenians

Main article: History of the Armenians in the Ottoman Empire

The Ottomans assigned Armenians equal legal representation, as one of the main millets. Other Orthodox populations, like the Bulgars and Serbs, were placed under the authority of the Orthodox Patriarch of Constantinopole, but this has never been the case for Armenians. The Armenian Church under the Ottomans had an improved position. It has to be mentioned that they had very early interaction with Ottomans. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Official standard of Karekin II Catholicos of Armenia The Armenian Apostolic Church, sometimes called the Armenian Orthodox Church or the Gregorian Church, is the worlds oldest national church and one of the most ancient Christian communities. ...

Jews

Main article: History of the Jews in Turkey

The Ottoman Jews, unlike other major millets nowhere a regional majority, enjoyed similar privileges to those of the Phanariot Greeks, and indeed came to enjoy some of the most extensive freedoms in Jewish history. The city of Thessaloniki, for instance, received a great influx of Jews in the 15th century and soon flourished economically to such an extent that, during the 18th century, it was the largest and possibly the most prosperous Jewish city in the world. By the early 20th century, Ottoman Jews —together with Armenian and Greeks— dominated commerce within the Empire. Jews have lived in Turkey (and, before that, the Ottoman Empire and other former states in Anatolia) for over two thousand years. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

History

Given the House of Osman was a Muslim populated institution, it is important to understand objectively, besides the each millets own ego-centric histories, these institutions were related to each other during the 6 centuries that they occupied the same political sphere under the state organization of the Ottoman Empire. Questions that are brought forward are "What was the states organizational behavior between Muslims to not-Muslim subpopulations? What was the status of subjects (individuals) under Millets? How the state did perceive the anti-Semitism and related these feelings to other millets. House of Osman is the name to the administrative structure of the Ottoman Dynasty, which is part of state organization of the Ottoman Empire, however directly linked to dynasty. ... A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم, Turkish: Müslüman, Persian and Urdu: مسلمان) is an adherent of Islam. ... The Ottoman Empire developed a highly advanced organisation of state over the centuries. ...

Establishment

Millet as an institution, was functioning even before the Osman I, under the Ottoman organization. Sultan Osman I Osman I (1258–1326) (Ottoman: عثمان بن أرطغل) was born in 1258 and inherited the title bey (chief) from his father, Ertuğrul, as the ruler of the village of Söğüt in 1281. ...

19th Century (Reformation Era)

With the implementation of the Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire external, Christian forces find a very effective way to influence the Ottoman Empire. Thus the Russians became formal Protectors of the Eastern Orthodox groups, the French of the Catholics and the British of the Jews and other groups. These activities, subsidized by the governments of western, Christian nations were not devoid from political aims. Russia and England competed for the Armenians and they percieved Americans who had over 100 missionaries established in Anatolia by WWI as a weakening of their own teaching. An older example was from 1847. The Ottoman governor of Jerusalem had to defend the Church of the Holy Sepulchre by locating soldiers inside the temple from the candlestick wars going on between Catholic and Orthodox monks. Candlestick were very deadly at that time. From the European capitals the notes were given to Ottoman capital about the Ottoman governor. He was condemned. Impartial governer was not desired by any side. The governor’s defense was the main reason behind the candlestick wars were not his activities, but beginning with 1840 the France had channeled resources to increase its influence in the Palestine which brought this tension. There were wars going on inside the Ottoman territory, but beyond Ottoman control. Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire are contracts between Ottoman Empire and European powers. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Eastern Orthodoxy (also called Greek Orthodoxy and Russian Orthodoxy) is a Christian tradition which represents the majority of Eastern Christianity. ... A mission literally means something that is sent, from the Latin word missum, sent. Thus we may refer to space exploration expeditions as space missions, or to a diplomatic outpost in a foreign territory as a diplomatic mission. Christian missions are movements or outposts of Christian proselytism. ... WWI may be an acronym for: World War I World Wrestling Industry This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... 1847 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Main Entrance to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, called the Church of the Resurrection (Anastasis in Greek and Surp Harutyun in Armenian) by Eastern Christians, is a Christian church now within the walled Old City of Jerusalem. ... This article should be split into multiple articles accessible from a disambiguation page. ... 1840 is a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will take you to calendar). ...

Ottoman system under external influences, which initially was a multi-faced but unified under the house of Osman, began to degrade with the continuous identification of the religious creed with ethnic nationality. It was a new breed of thought (a new form of identification) which was turning nationalism synonymous with religion. New millets were created in the 19th century for several uniate and protestant Christian communities, then for the separate national Eastern Orthodox Bulgarian Church, recognized as a millet by an Ottoman firman in 1870 and excommunicated two years later by the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate as adherents of phyletism (national or ethnic principle in church organization). House of Osman is the name to the administrative structure of the Ottoman Dynasty, which is part of state organization of the Ottoman Empire, however directly linked to dynasty. ... The term Eastern Rites may refer to the liturgical rites used by many ancient Christian Churches of Eastern Europe and the Middle East that, while being part of the Roman Catholic Church, are distinct from the Latin Rite or Western Church. ... Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... The Bulgarian Orthodox Church (Българска православна църква) is an autocephalous Eastern Orthodox Church with some 6. ... Firman refers to a royal mandate or decree issued from a sovereign in Western Asian countries such as Iran under the Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi or the Ottoman rulers. ... 1870 (MDCCCLXX) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Monday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ... The Patriarch of Constantinople is the Ecumenical Patriarch, ranking as the first among equals in the Eastern Orthodox communion. ...

At the beginning of the 19th century, the religious fragmentation, which Ottoman Empire flourished during its reign turned into seventeen major millets into seventeen nationalities against the empire. Before 1914, WWI, under ottoman system there were seventeen millets which Ottomans constantly have to relate (give reports, or answer their requests) to foreign governments. This altered the balance of power in the empire as these millets became wealthy and outside Ottoman law. There was no reason for these millets to stay under the Ottoman umbrella as naturally these millets wanted to be free. Ottoman system scrambled to counter the concept of this new freedom, as these different denominations had already establishing schools, churches, hospitals, printing presses and a variety of service groups to carry the Christian message and its related concept of society. There was little to do for Ottoman Empire to bring these people back to its own power of influence. WWI may be an acronym for: World War I World Wrestling Industry This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...

These activities were moving the Christian population out of the frame work of the Ottoman political system. There was an exceptional case. In 1860, Alliance Israelite Universelle was founded to influence the Jews in the Middle East, giving them chance to be educated. The effect of this institution broke the dependence of Jews on foreigners for advancement and security, hence the relationship of Jews and Ottomans were very differently shaped during the dissolution period. Alliance Israelite Universelle is an international Jewish organization of French Jews based in France. ... // Balkan Wars The Ottoman army in the balkans was large and appeared on the surface to be modern. ...

Modern Use

Today the millet system is still used at varying degrees in some post-Ottoman countries like Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, the Palestinian Authority and Egypt, but also in non-post-Ottoman states like Iran, Pakistan and Bangladesh which kept the principle of separate personal status courts and/or laws for every recognized religious community and, for most of them, reserved seats in the parliament. The West Bank The Palestinian National Authority (PNA or PA) is a semi-autonomous state institution nominally governing the bulk of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip (which it calls the Palestinian Territories). It was established as a part of Oslo accords between the PLO and Israel. ...

In Egypt for instance, according to a 1995 law, the application of family law, including marriage, divorce, alimony, child custody, inheritance and burial, is based on an individual's religion. In the practice of family law, the State recognizes only the three "heavenly religions": Islam, Christianity, and Judaism. Muslim families are subject to the Personal Status Law, which draws on Sharia. Christian families are subject to canon law, and Jewish families are subject to Jewish law. In cases of family law disputes involving a marriage between a Christian woman and a Muslim man, the courts apply the Personal Status Law (see: Egypt - International Religious Freedom Report Released by the U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 2001). Family Law was a television drama starring Kathleen Quinlan as a divorced lawyer who attempted to start her own law firm after her lawyer husband took all their old clients. ... A marriage is a relationship between or among individuals, usually recognized by civil authority and/or bound by the religious beliefs of the participants. ... Divorce or dissolution of marriage is the ending of a marriage before the death of either spouse, which can be contrasted with an annulment, which is a declaration that a marriage is void, though the effects of marriage may be recognized in such unions, such as spousal support, child custody... In many countries alimony, maintenance or spousal support is an obligation established by law that is based on the premise that both spouses have an absolute obligation to support each other during the marriage (or civil union) unless they are legally separated, though in some instances the obligation to support... Inheritance is the practice of passing on property, titles, debts, and obligations upon the death of an individual. ... Underwater funeral in Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea from an edition with drawings by Alphonse de Neuville and Edouard Riou. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Sharia (Arabic: ‎ translit: ) refers to the body of Islamic law. ... Canon law is the term used for the internal ecclesiastical law which governs various churches, most notably the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Churches and the Anglican Communion of churches. ... Halakha (Hebrew: הלכה; also transliterated as Halakhah, Halacha, Halakhot and Halachah) is the collective corpus of Jewish religious law, including biblical law (the 613 mitzvot) and later talmudic and rabbinic law as well as customs and traditions. ...

Some observers deem that multiculturalism, as practiced in states like Canada and Australia, also has some similarities to the millet system. The national-cultural autonomy principle of the austromarxists, bundist and folkist thinkers also bears some similarity with the millet system. Multiculturalism is a public policy approach for managing cultural diversity in a multiethnic society, officially stressing mutual respect and tolerance for cultural differences within a countrys borders. ... Austromarxism was the left socialist ideology pursued by the Social Democratic Workers Party of Austria during the late decades of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and the Austrian First Republic (1918-1934). ... A Bundist demonstration, 1917 The General Jewish Labour Union of Lithuania, Poland and Russia, in Yiddish the Algemeyner Yidisher Arbeter Bund in Lite, Poyln un Rusland (אַלגמײַנער ײדישער אַרבײטערסבונד אין ליטאַ, פוילין און רוסלאַנד), generally called The Bund (בונד) or the Jewish Labor Bund, was a Jewish political party operating in several European countries between the 1890s and the... The Folkspartei (yiddish: Yidishe folkspartay; Peoples Democratic Party, folkist party) was founded after the 1905 pogroms in Russia by Simon Dubnow and Israel Efrojkin. ...

See also

• Apartheid
• Blood money
• Caste
• Culture of the Ottoman Empire
• Devşirme system
• Dhimmi
• Jizyah
• Segregation
• Yellow badge

A segregated beach in South Africa, 1982. ... Blood money is money paid by a killer as compensation to the next of kin of a accidental death victim. ... Caste systems are traditional, hereditary systems of social stratification, such as clans, gentes, or the Indian caste system. ... Early on as the Ottoman Turks drove out the Byzantines from Anatolia and later pursued them into Europe, the pursuit was a part of the Jihad (or Holy War) against Christianity, and the first Ottoman rulers called themselves Gazi, or Holy Warriors. ... Devshirmeh (Turkish devşirme) refers to the system used by the Ottoman sultans to tax newly conquered states, and build a loyal slave army and class of administrators: the Janissaries. ... A dhimmi (also zimmi, Arabic: ‎, plural: اهل الذمۃ, ahl al-dhimma) was a free (i. ... In Islamic law, jizyah (Arabic: جزْية) is a per capita tax required of adult males of other faiths under Muslim rule in exchange for the protection of the Muslim community. ... Segregation means separation. ... The yellow badge which Jews were forced to wear during the Nazi occupation of Europe: a black Star of David on a yellow field, with the word Jew written inside. ...

References

↑ Stanford J. Shaw, "Dynamics of Ottoman Society and administration", in "History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey"

Sources

(incomplete)

• Ottoman empire site, German full original version (to be further exploited)

Further reading

• Josef Matuz, Das Osmanische Reich. Grundlinien seiner Geschichte, Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1985.
• Bernard Lewis, Die Juden in der islamischen Welt. Vom frühen Mittelalter bis ins 20. Jahrhundert, München: Beck, 1987, passim.
• Henry Blount, A Voyage into the Levant (1636), Amsterdam 1977. Originally titled: A Voyage into the Levant. A Briefe Relation of a Journey. Lately performed by Master H.B. Gentleman, from England by the way of Venice, into Dalmatia, Sclavonia, Bosnah, Hungary, Macedonia, Thessaly, Thrace, Rhodes and Egypt, unto Gran Cairo: With particular observations concerning the moderne condition of the Turkes, and other people under that Empire. London, 1636.
• Michael Ursinus, Zur Diskussion um „millet“ im Osmanischen Reich, in: Südost-Forschungen 48 (1989), pp. 195-207
• Benjamin Braude und Bernard Lewis (ed.), Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire. The Functioning of a Plural Society, 2 vol., New York und London 1982.
• Irwin Cemil Schick, Osmanlılar, Azınlıklar ve Yahudiler [Osmanen, Minoritäten und Juden], in: Tarih ve Toplum 29 (Mayıs 1986), 34-42.
• Elizabeth A. Zachariadou, Co-Existence and Religion, in: Archivum Ottomanicum 15 (1997), 119-129.
• Bat Yeór, The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians under Islam, Cranbury, NJ, 1985.
• Youssef Courbage and Philippe Fargues, Christians and Jews under Islam, translated by Judy Mabro, London-New York 1997.
• Karl Binswanger, Untersuchungen zum Status der Nichtmuslime im Osmanischen Reich des 16. Jahrhunderts mit einer Neudefinition des Begriffes "Dhimma", München 1977.
• Yavuz Ercan, Osmanlı Yönetiminde Gayrimüslimler. Kuruluştan Tanzimat´a kadar Sosyal, Ekonomik ve Hukuki Durumları [Die Nichtmuslime in der osmanischen Verwaltung. Soziale, wirtschaftliche und rechtliche Lage von der Gründung bis zur Tanzimat], Ankara 2001.
• Paret, Rudi: Toleranz und Intoleranz im Islam, in: Saeculum 21 (1970), 344-65.
• Bilal Eryılmaz, Osmanlı Devletinde Gayrimüslim Teb´anın Yönetimi [Die Verwaltung der nichtmuslimischen Untertanen im Osmanischen Reich], İstanbul 1990, pp. 215-218.
• Fikret Adanır, Der Zerfall des Osmanischen Reiches, in: Das Ende der Weltreiche: von den Persern bis zur Sowjetunion, hrsg. von Alexander Demant, München 1997, S. 108-128.
• Ramsaur, Ernest Edmondson Jr., The Young Turks. Prelude to the Revolution of 1908, 2. ed., İstanbul 1982, pp. 40-41, Anm. 30: ”Meşveret”, Paris, 3. Dezember 1895.
• Fikret Adanır, Die Makedonische Frage, ihre Entstehung und Entwicklung bis 1908, Wiesbaden 1979, p. 93.
• Johannes Lepsius, & others (ed.), Die Große Politik der europäischen Kabinette 1871 - 1914. Sammlung der diplomatischen Akten des Auswärtigen Amtes, Berlin 1923-1929, vol. 18, Teil I, p. 169.
• Fatma Müge Göçek, Burjuvazinin Yükselişi, İmparatorluğun Çöküşü. Osmanlı Batılılaşması ve Toplumsal Değişme [Rise of the Bourgeoisie, decline of the empires. Ottoman westernisation and social change], Ankara 1999, pp. 307-309
• Çağlar Keyder, Bureaucracy and Bourgeoisie: Reform and Revolution in the Age of Imperialism, in: Review, XI, 2, Spring 1988, pp. 151-165.
• Roderic H. Davison, Turkish Attitudes Concerning Christian-Muslim Equality in the Nineteenth Century, in: American Historical Review 59 (1953-54), pp. 844-864.
• Bernard Lewis, Der Untergang des Morgenlandes. Warum die islamische Welt ihre Vormacht verlor, Bonn 2002, p. 99.
• Bernard Lewis, Stern, Kreuz und Halbmond. 2000 Jahre Geschichte des Nahen Ostens, München, Zürich 1995, p. 302.