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Encyclopedia > Nazi human experimentation
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Nazi human experimentation was medical experimentation on large numbers of people by the German Nazi regime in its concentration camps during World War II. The National Socialist German Workers Party (German: , or NSDAP, commonly, the Nazi Party), was a political party in Germany between 1920 and 1945. ... It has been suggested that Internment be merged into this article or section. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000...

Contents

Experiments

According to the indictment at the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials, these experiments included:[1][2] Chief prosecutor Telford Taylor opens the prosecution case in the Krupp Trial The Subsequent Nuremberg Trials (or, more formally, the Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals (NMT)) were a series of twelve U.S. military trials for war crimes against surviving members of the military, political, and...


Freezing experiments

A cold water immersion experiment at Dachau concentration camp presided over by Professor Holzlohner (left) and Dr. Rascher (right). The subject is wearing a Luftwaffe garment.

Later in 1942, the Luftwaffe conducted experiments to learn how to treat hypothermia. One study forced subjects to endure a tank of ice water for up to three hours. Another study placed prisoners naked in the open for several hours with temperatures below freezing. The experimenters assessed different ways of rewarming survivors.[3] Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1404x940, 259 KB)Cold water immersion experiment at Dachau concentration camp presided over by Professor Holzlohner (left) and Dr Rascher (right). ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (1404x940, 259 KB)Cold water immersion experiment at Dachau concentration camp presided over by Professor Holzlohner (left) and Dr Rascher (right). ... The main entrance just after the liberation Memorial at the camp, 1997. ... The Deutsche Luftwaffe or   (German: air force, literally Air Weapon, pronounced lufft-va-fa, IPA: ) is the commonly used term for the German air force. ... The Deutsche Luftwaffe or   (German: air force, literally Air Weapon, pronounced lufft-va-fa, IPA: ) is the commonly used term for the German air force. ... Hypothermia is a condition in which an organisms temperature drops below that Required fOr normal metabolism and Bodily functionS. In warm-blooded animals, core [[body Temperature]] is maintained nEar a constant leVel through biologic [[homEostasis]]. But wheN the body iS exposed to cold Its internal mechanismS may be unable...


The freezing/hypothermia experiments were conducted for the Nazi high command. The experiments were conducted on men to simulate the conditions the armies suffered on the Eastern Front. The German forces were ill prepared for the bitter cold. Thousands of German soldiers died in the freezing temperatures or were debilitated by cold injuries. In physics and chemistry, freezing is the process whereby a liquid turns to a solid. ... Hypothermia is a condition in which an organisms temperature drops below that Required fOr normal metabolism and Bodily functionS. In warm-blooded animals, core [[body Temperature]] is maintained nEar a constant leVel through biologic [[homEostasis]]. But wheN the body iS exposed to cold Its internal mechanismS may be unable... National Socialism redirects here. ... Combatants Soviet Union,[1] Poland, Tannu Tuva (until 1944 incorporation with USSR), Mongolia Germany,[2] Italy (to 1943), Romania (to 1944), Finland (to 1944), Hungary, Slovakia, Croatia, Spain (to 1943, unofficial) Commanders Joseph Stalin, Aleksei Antonov, Ivan Konev, Rodion Malinovsky, Ivan Bagramyan, Kirill Meretskov, Ivan Petrov, Alexander Rodimtsev, Konstantin Rokossovsky...


The experiments were conducted under the supervision of Dr. Sigmund Rascher at the concentration camps at Birkenau, Dachau and Auschwitz. Rascher reported directly to Heinrich Himmler, and publicized the results of his freezing experiments at the 1942 medical conference entitled "Medical Problems Arising from Sea and Winter". Sigmund Rascher, born February 12th 1909 in Munich, executed April 26th 1945 in Dachau, was a German SS doctor. ... It has been suggested that Internment be merged into this article or section. ... It has been suggested that Internment be merged into this article or section. ... The main entrance just after the liberation Memorial at the camp, 1997. ... Auschwitz, in English, commonly refers to the Auschwitz concentration camp complex built near the town of Oświęcim, by Nazi Germany during World War II. Rarely, it may refer to the Polish town of Oświęcim (called by the Germans Auschwitz) itself. ... Heinrich Luitpold Himmler ( ; 7 October 1900–23 May 1945) was commander of the Schutzstaffel (SS) and one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany and the Nazi hierarchy. ...


The freezing experiments were in two parts. First, to establish how long it would take to lower the body temperature to death, and second how to best resuscitate the frozen victim.


The icy vat method proved to be the fastest way to drop the body temperature. The selections were made of young healthy Jews or Russians. They were usually stripped naked and prepared for the experiment. An insulated probe which measured the drop in the body temperature was inserted into the rectum. The probe was held in place by an expandable metal ring which was adjusted to open inside the rectum to hold the probe firmly in place. The victim was then placed in the vat of cold water and started to freeze. It was learned that most subjects lost consciousness and died when the body temperature dropped to 77°F (25°C). The rectum (from the Latin rectum intestinum, meaning straight intestine) is the final straight portion of the large intestine in some mammals, and the gut in others, terminating in the anus. ...


Malaria experiments

From about February 1942 to about April 1945, experiments were conducted at the Dachau concentration camp in order to investigate immunization for treatment of malaria. Healthy inmates were infected by mosquitoes or by injections of extracts of the mucous glands of mosquitoes. After contracting malaria, the subjects were treated with various drugs to test their relative efficiency. Over 1,000 people were used in these experiments.[4] The main entrance just after the liberation Memorial at the camp, 1997. ... For other uses, see Mosquito (disambiguation). ...


Lost (mustard) gas experiments

At various times between September 1939 and April 1945, experiments were conducted at Sachsenhausen, Natzweiler, and other camps to investigate the most effective treatment of wounds caused by Lost gas, commonly known as mustard gas. Wounds were inflicted on the subjects, who were then tested with Lost to investigate the most effective treatment of the wounds. Entry to the camp Sachsenhausen was a concentration camp in Germany, operating between 1936 and 1950. ... Camp entrance Natzweiler-Struthof was a Nazi concentration camp located close to the Alsatian village of Natzwiller (German Natzweiler) in France about 50 km from the city of Strasbourg. ... The sulfur mustards, of which mustard gas is a member, are a class of related cytotoxic, vesicant chemical warfare agents with the ability to form large blisters on exposed skin. ...


Sulfonamide experiments

From about July 1942 to about September 1943, experiments to investigate the effectiveness of sulfonamide, a synthetic antimicrobial agent, were conducted at Ravensbrück. Wounds inflicted on the subjects were infected with bacteria such as streptococcus, gas gangrene, and tetanus. Circulation of blood was interrupted by tying off blood vessels at both ends of the wound to create a condition similar to that of a battlefield wound. Infection was aggravated by forcing wood shavings and ground glass into the wounds. The infection was treated with sulfonamide and other drugs to determine their effectiveness. There are several sulphonamide-based groups of drugs. ... Phyla/Divisions Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Omnibacteria Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria (singular, bacterium) are a major group of living organisms. ... Streptococcus is a genus of spherical shaped Gram-positive bacteria, belonging to the phylum Firmicutes[1] and the lactic acid bacteria group. ... Gas gangrene is a bacterial infection that produces gas within tissues in gangrene. ... Tetanus is a medical condition that is characterized by a prolonged contraction of skeletal muscle fibers. ...


Sea water experiments

From about July 1944 to about September 1944, experiments were conducted at Dachau to study various methods of making sea water drinkable. Some of the subjects were deprived of all food and given only chemically processed sea water.


Sterilization experiments

From about March 1941 to about January 1945, sterilization experiments were conducted at Auschwitz and Ravensbrück, and other places. The purpose of these experiments was to develop a method of sterilization which would be suitable for sterilizing millions of people with a minimum of time and effort. These experiments were conducted by means of X-ray, surgery, and various drugs. Thousands of victims were sterilized. (Aside from its experimentation, the Nazi government sterilized around 400,000 individuals as part of its compulsory sterilization program.) Intravenous injections of solutions speculated to contain jodipin, iodine, and silver nitrate were successful, but had unwanted side effects such as vaginal bleeding and severe abdominal pain. Therefore, radiation treatment became the favored choice of sterilization. Specific amounts of exposure to radiation destroyed a person’s ability to produce ova and sperm. The way the radiation was administered was through deception. Prisoners were brought into a room and asked to fill out forms, which took two to three minutes. In this time, the radiation treatment was administered and, unbeknownst to the prisoners, they were rendered completely sterile. Many suffered severe radiation burns. Auschwitz, in English, commonly refers to the Auschwitz concentration camp complex built near the town of Oświęcim, by Nazi Germany during World War II. Rarely, it may refer to the Polish town of Oświęcim (called by the Germans Auschwitz) itself. ... View of the barracks at Ravensbrück Ravensbrück was a German concentration camp located 90 km north of Berlin. ... In the NATO phonetic alphabet, X-ray represents the letter X. An X-ray picture (radiograph) taken by Röntgen An X-ray is a form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength approximately in the range of 5 pm to 10 nanometers (corresponding to frequencies in the range 30 PHz... “Surgeon” redirects here. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... National Socialism redirects here. ... Compulsory sterilization programs are government policies which attempt to force people to undergo surgical sterilization. ... For the record label, see Iodine Recordings. ... R-phrases , S-phrases , , , , Flash point non-flammable Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ...


Typhus (Fleckfieber) experiments

From about December 1941 to about February 1945, experiments were conducted to investigate the effectiveness of spotted fever and other vaccines. At Buchenwald, numerous healthy inmates were deliberately infected with typhus bacteria in order to keep the bacteria alive; over 90% of victims died. Other healthy inmates were used to determine the effectiveness of different spotted fever vaccines and of various chemical substances. In the course of these experiments, 75% of the selected inmates were vaccinated with one of the vaccines or nourished with one of the chemical substances and, after a period of three to four weeks, were infected with spotted fever germs. The remaining 25% were infected without any previous protection in order to compare the effectiveness of the vaccines and the chemical substances. Hundreds of the subjects died. Experiments with yellow fever, smallpox, typhus, paratyphus A and B, cholera, and diphtheria were also conducted. Similar experiments with like results were conducted at Natzweiler. For the unrelated disease caused by Salmonella typhi, see Typhoid fever. ... Phyla Actinobacteria Aquificae Chlamydiae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Lentisphaerae Nitrospirae Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Verrucomicrobia Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are unicellular microorganisms. ... Smallpox (also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera) is a contagious disease unique to humans. ... For the unrelated disease caused by Salmonella typhi, see Typhoid fever. ... Cholera (or Asiatic cholera or epidemic cholera) is a severe diarrheal disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. ... Camp entrance Natzweiler-Struthof was a Nazi concentration camp located close to the Alsatian village of Natzwiller (German Natzweiler) in France about 50 km from the city of Strasbourg. ...


Experiments with poison

In or about December 1943 and October 1944, experiments were conducted at Buchenwald to investigate the effect of various poisons. The poisons were secretly administered to experimental subjects in their food. The victims died as a result of the poison or were killed immediately in order to permit autopsies. In September 1944, experimental subjects were shot with poisonous bullets and suffered torture and death. Slave laborers in the Buchenwald concentration camp (Elie Wiesel is second row, seventh from left). ... Post-mortem, postmortem and post mortem redirect here. ...


Incendiary bomb experiments

From about November 1943 to about January 1944, experiments were conducted at Buchenwald to test the effect of various pharmaceutical preparations on phosphorus burns. These burns were inflicted on subjects with phosphorus matter taken from incendiary bombs. General Name, symbol, number phosphorus, P, 15 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 15, 3, p Appearance waxy white/ red/ black/ colorless Standard atomic weight 30. ... Incendiary bombs are bombs designed to start fires or destroy sensitive equipment using materials such as napalm, thermite, or white phosphorus. ...


Doctors' Trial

After the war, these crimes were tried at what became known as the Doctors' Trial, and revulsion at the abuses perpetrated led to the development of the Nuremberg Code of medical ethics. Karl Brandt at the Doctors Trial The Doctors Trial (officially United States of America v. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... Medical ethics is primarily a field of applied ethics, the study of moral values and judgments as they apply to medicine. ...


References to Nazi results in scientific work

This section has been nominated to be checked for its neutrality.
Discussion of this nomination can be found on the talk page.

Some of these results are sometimes considered scientifically valid. For viewpoints on the moral problems that this causes, see: Image File history File links Unbalanced_scales. ...

For example, the page marked # says that: New Scientist is a weekly international science magazine covering recent developments in science and technology for a general English-speaking audience. ... February 28 is the 59th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the year. ...

Of course, such data should be used only in the most exceptional circumstances and only in the absence of ethically derived data.
John P. Fernandez, a hypothermia researcher, wrote in "Rapid active external rewarming in accidental hypothermia", Journal of the American Medical Association, volume 212, pages 153-6, 6 April 1970: "These sordid investigations proved to the satisfaction of the executioners that the best method of resuscitating hypothermia prisoners was by rapid and intensive rewarming."
Science writer Kristine Moe (in "Should the Nazi research data be cited?", Hastings Center Report, volume 14, number 6, pages 5-7, 1984) praised that article as a model for the tone in which Nazi research, if used, should be cited.

Hypothermia is a condition in which an organisms temperature drops below that Required fOr normal metabolism and Bodily functionS. In warm-blooded animals, core [[body Temperature]] is maintained nEar a constant leVel through biologic [[homEostasis]]. But wheN the body iS exposed to cold Its internal mechanismS may be unable... is the 96th day of the year (97th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ...

See also

There are very few or no other articles that link to this one. ... Peace Palace in The Hague Command responsibility, sometimes referred to as the Yamashita standard, or the Medina standard is the doctrine of hierarchical accountability in cases of war crimes. ... Karl Brandt at the Doctors Trial The Doctors Trial (officially United States of America v. ... Human experimentation involves medical experiments performed on human beings. ... Nazism in history Nazi ideology Nazism and race Outside Germany Related subjects Lists Politics Portal         Nazi eugenics pertains to Nazi Germanys race based social policies that placed the improvement of the race through eugenics at the center of their concerns and targeted those humans they identified as life unworthy... For the 1947 Soviet film about the trials, see Nuremberg Trials (film). ... Japanese war crimes occurred during the period of Japanese imperialism. ... Body disposal at Unit 731 Unit 731 was a covert biological warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that undertook lethal human experimentation during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) and World War II. It was responsible for some of the most notorious war crimes carried... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Japanese war crimes. ... Mengele in uniform Josef Mengele (March 16, 1911– February 7, 1979), was a German SS officer and a physician in the German Nazi concentration camp Auschwitz-Birkenau. ... Image:Carlclauberg. ... Fritz Fischer was born on 5th October, 1912 in Berlin. ... Hubertus Strughold (1898-1987) was a German pioneer of space medicine and the author of over 180 papers in the field. ... Dr. Eduard Wirths (4 September 1909—20 September 1945) was the Chief SS doctor (SS-Standortarzt) at the Auschwitz Extermination Camp from September 1942 to January 1945. ...

Further information

Books
  • Baumslag, N. (2005). Murderous Medicine: Nazi Doctors, Human Experimentation, and Typhus. Praeger Publishers ISBN 0-275-98312-9
  • Weindling, P.J. (2005). Nazi Medicine and the Nuremberg Trials: From Medical War Crimes to Informed Consent. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-3911-X
  • Rees, L. (2005). Auschwitz: A New History. Public Affairs. ISBN 1-58648-357-9
Videos
  • Michalczyk, John J. (1997). Nazi Medicine: In The Shadow Of The Reich

Citations

  1. ^ Nazi Medical Experiments from the Jewish Virtual Library: http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Holocaust/medtoc.html
  2. ^ U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum. Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals under Control Council Law No. 10. Nuremberg, October 1946 - April 1949. Washington D.C.: U.S. G.P.O, 1949-1953.
  3. ^ Bogod, David. "The Nazi Hypothermia Experiments: Forbidden Data?", Anaesthesia, Volume 59 Issue 12 Page 1155, December 2004.
  4. ^ http://www.scrapbookpages.com/DachauScrapbook/DachauGuidebookText.html

Further reading


  Results from FactBites:
 
AboveTopSecret.com Archive: "History Secret Experiments Conducted on U.S. Citizens" (1756 words)
Nazi doctors later on trial at Nuremberg cite this American study to defend their own actions during the Holocaust.
Human subjects (both civilian and military) are used with and without their knowledge.
Experimental Hepatitis B vaccine trials, conducted by the CDC, begin in New York, Los Angeles and San Francisco.
  More results at FactBites »


 

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