NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Nicolaus Copernicus

Nicolaus Copernicus (February 19, 1473 – May 24, 1543) was the first European astronomer to formulate a scientifically based heliocentric cosmology that displaced the Earth from the center of the universe. His epochal book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), is often regarded as the starting point of modern astronomy, as well as a defining epiphany in the history of science. Copernicus can refer to the following: Nicolaus Copernicus (1479-1543), astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus University in ToruÅ„ Nicolaus Copernicus University Polar Station Copernicus crater on the Moon Copernicus crater on Mars COPERNICUS space telescope (ultraviolet) Kopernik Space Center, an observatory in Vestal, New York 1322 Coppernicus Copernicia in the second movie... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (556x648, 99 KB) de: Nikolaus Kopernikus (Portrait aus Thorn - Beginn des 16. ... Motto: Durabo (lat. ... (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... [[Media:Italic text]]{| style=float:right; |- | |- | |} is the 50th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events Ottoman sultan Mehmed II defeats the White Sheep Turkmens lead by Uzun Hasan at Otlukbeli Axayacatl, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan invades the territory of neighboring Aztec city of Tlatelolco. ... Motto: Durabo (lat. ... Map of Royal Prussia (light pink) History - Established October 19, 1466 - Loss of autonomy 1 July 1569 - Annexed August 5, 1772 Royal Prussia (German: ; Polish: ) was a province of the Kingdom of Poland and then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1772. ... is the 144th day of the year (145th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... // Events February 21 - Battle of Wayna Daga - A combined army of Ethiopian and Portuguese troops defeat the armies of Adal led by Ahmed Gragn. ... Frombork Cathedral, with the Vistula Lagoon in the background Frombork (German: ) is a town in northern Poland, on the Vistula Lagoon in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodship, with a population of 2,602 in 2005. ... Warmia in 1547 Warmia (Polish: , German: , Latin: Varmia, also historically known as Ermeland) is a region between Pomerania and Masuria in northeastern Poland. ... Leonhard Euler, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time A mathematician is a person whose primary area of study and research is the field of mathematics. ... An astronomer or astrophysicist is a person whose area of interest is astronomy or astrophysics. ... A jurist is a professional who studies, develops, applies or otherwise deals with the law. ... For other uses, see Doctor. ... Classics, particularly within the Western University tradition, when used as a singular noun, means the study of the language, literature, history, art, and other aspects of Greek and Roman culture during the time frame known as classical antiquity. ... Catholic Church redirects here. ... For other uses, see Governor (disambiguation). ... An Administrator (Administrator of the Government, Officer Administering the Government) in some countries in the Commonwealth is a person who fulfils a role similar to that of a Governor or a Governor-General. ... Insignia of a United States Navy Commander Commander is a military rank used in many navies but not generally in armies or air forces. ... This article is about negotiations. ... Alan Greenspan, former chairman, United States Federal Reserve. ... For several academies alternatively called Krakow Academy, see Education in KrakÃ³w The Jagiellonian University (Polish: , often shortened to UJ) is located in KrakÃ³w, Poland. ... The University of Bologna (Italian Alma Mater Studiorum UniversitÃ di Bologna, UNIBO) is the university of Bologna, the second biggest university in Italy. ... Gymnasivm Patavinum: The Universitys main Bo palace shown in a 1654 woodcut The University of Padua (Italian UniversitÃ degli Studi di Padova, UNIPD) located in Padua, Italy was founded in 1222. ... The University of Ferrara (UniversitÃ degli Studi di Ferrara) is main university of the city of Ferrara in the Emilia-Romagna region of northern Italy. ... Heliocentric Solar System Heliocentrism (lower panel) in comparison to the geocentric model (upper panel) In astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the sun is at the center of the Universe and/or the Solar System. ... The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. ... [[Media:Italic text]]{| style=float:right; |- | |- | |} is the 50th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events Ottoman sultan Mehmed II defeats the White Sheep Turkmens lead by Uzun Hasan at Otlukbeli Axayacatl, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan invades the territory of neighboring Aztec city of Tlatelolco. ... is the 144th day of the year (145th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... // Events February 21 - Battle of Wayna Daga - A combined army of Ethiopian and Portuguese troops defeat the armies of Adal led by Ahmed Gragn. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... An astronomer or astrophysicist is a person whose area of interest is astronomy or astrophysics. ... Heliocentric Solar System Heliocentrism (lower panel) in comparison to the geocentric model (upper panel) In astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the sun is at the center of the Universe and/or the Solar System. ... Cosmology, from the Greek: ÎºÎ¿ÏƒÎ¼Î¿Î»Î¿Î³Î¯Î± (cosmologia, ÎºÏŒÏƒÎ¼Î¿Ï‚ (cosmos) order + Î»Î¿Î³Î¹Î± (logia) discourse) is the study of the Universe in its totality, and by extension, humanitys place in it. ... This article is about Earth as a planet. ... Nicolai Copernici Torinensis De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Libri VI - On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, by Nicolaus Copernicus of Torin, Six Books (title page of 2nd edition, ex officina Henricpetrina Basel, 1566) Heliocentric model of the solar system De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (English: ), first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg... For other uses, see Astronomy (disambiguation). ... This article is about a feeling, for other meanings see epiphany (disambiguation). ... Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by a global community of researchers making use of a body of techniques known as scientific methods, emphasizing the observation, experimentation and scientific explanation of real world phenomena. ...

Although Greek, Indian and Muslim savants had published heliocentric hypotheses centuries before Copernicus, his publication of a scientific theory of heliocentrism, demonstrating that the Sun is at the center of what is now called the solar system, was a landmark in the history of modern science. This is a sub-article of Islamic science and astronomy. ... Look up savant in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Look up Hypothesis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Sol redirects here. ... This article is about the Solar System. ... Taj Mahal Big Ben Saint Basils Cathedral Azadi Square in Tehran For other senses of this word, see landmark (disambiguation). ...

Among the great polymaths of the Scientific Revolution and the Renaissance, Copernicus was a mathematician, astronomer, jurist, physician, classical scholar, translator, Catholic cleric, governor, administrator, military leader, diplomat and economist. Amid his extensive responsibilities, astronomy figured as little more than an avocation – yet it was in that field that he made his mark upon the world. Leonardo da Vinci, a polymath, is seen as the epitome of the related term, Renaissance Man A polymath (Greek polymathÄ“s, Ï€Î¿Î»Ï…Î¼Î±Î¸Î®Ï‚, having learned much)[1][2] is a person with encyclopedic, broad, or varied knowledge or learning. ... This article is about the period or event in history. ... This article is about the European Renaissance of the 14th-17th centuries. ... Leonhard Euler, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time A mathematician is a person whose primary area of study and research is the field of mathematics. ... A jurist is a professional who studies, develops, applies or otherwise deals with the law. ... For other uses, see Doctor. ... Classics, particularly within the Western University tradition, when used as a singular noun, means the study of the language, literature, history, art, and other aspects of Greek and Roman culture during the time frame known as classical antiquity. ... Look up Translator in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Catholic Church redirects here. ... For other uses, see Governor (disambiguation). ... An Administrator (Administrator of the Government, Officer Administering the Government) in some countries in the Commonwealth is a person who fulfils a role similar to that of a Governor or a Governor-General. ... Pretorian Guards, Roman Soldiers Military has two broad meanings. ... This article is about negotiations. ... Alan Greenspan, former chairman, United States Federal Reserve. ...

Life

Nicolaus Copernicus was born in the city of Toruń (Thorn) on the Vistula River in the Royal Prussia region of the Kingdom of Poland on February 19, 1473.^[1] He was educated at Kraków, Bologna, Padua and Ferrara, and spent most of his working life within the prince-bishopric of Warmia (Ermeland), in the town of Frombork (Frauenburg), where he died in 1543. Motto: Durabo (lat. ... Vistula river basin Vistula (Polish Wisła), is the longest river in Poland. ... Map of Royal Prussia (light pink) History - Established October 19, 1466 - Loss of autonomy 1 July 1569 - Annexed August 5, 1772 Royal Prussia (German: ; Polish: ) was a province of the Kingdom of Poland and then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1772. ... The Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons was the Polish state in the years between the death of Casimir III in 1370 and the Union of Lublin in 1569. ... [[Media:Italic text]]{| style=float:right; |- | |- | |} is the 50th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events Ottoman sultan Mehmed II defeats the White Sheep Turkmens lead by Uzun Hasan at Otlukbeli Axayacatl, Aztec ruler of Tenochtitlan invades the territory of neighboring Aztec city of Tlatelolco. ... For other uses, see Krakow (disambiguation). ... For the food product, see Bologna sausage. ... Padua, Italy, (Italian: IPA: , Latin: Patavium, Venetian: ) is a city in the Veneto, northern Italy, the economic and communications hub of the region. ... Ferrara is a city in Emilia-Romagna, Italy, capital city of the province of Ferrara. ... Prince-Bishop was the title given bishops who held secular powers, beside their inherent clerical power. ... Warmia in 1547 Warmia (Polish: , German: , Latin: Varmia, also historically known as Ermeland) is a region between Pomerania and Masuria in northeastern Poland. ... Frombork Cathedral, with the Vistula Lagoon in the background Frombork (German: ) is a town in northern Poland, on the Vistula Lagoon in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodship, with a population of 2,602 in 2005. ...

Origins

Copernicus' home city of Toruń (Thorn) was a meeting point of many cultures. It was an important inland port in the Hanseatic League, and a member of the Prussian Confederation of cities. Toruń was founded as an outpost of the Teutonic Knights, but became independent after the battle of Grunwald of 1410. About two decades before Copernicus' birth, a secession led to the Thirteen Years' War and the Peace of Toruń of 1466; Prussia's western part willingly became subordinate to the Polish king as "Royal Prussia", while the eastern part remained under the administration of the Catholic Teutonic Order as a Polish fief until 1525. Although Prussia eventually became strongly assimilated into German culture, the native language and cultural traditions of Old Prussia were still relevant in the time of Copernicus.^[2] Prussian subjects of a German Duke and a Polish King, citizens of Toruń were also subjects of the Catholic Church during the turmoil of the Protestant Reformation. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2112x2917, 1489 KB) Summary Licensing File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Nicolaus Copernicus ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2112x2917, 1489 KB) Summary Licensing File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Nicolaus Copernicus ... Motto: Durabo (lat. ... Carta marina of the Baltic Sea region (1539). ... On February 21, 1440, a group made up of individuals from the Prussian cities, gentry and clergy, formed the Prussian Confederation (German Preussischer Bund, Polish: ZwiÄ…zek Pruski), under the leadership of the big cities Gdansk, Elblag, and Torun. ... For the state, see Monastic state of the Teutonic Knights. ... Combatants Kingdom of Poland Grand Duchy of Lithuania Teutonic Order and Mercenaries and Various Knights from the rest of Europe Commanders WÅ‚adysÅ‚aw II JagieÅ‚Å‚o, Vytautas the Great Ulrich von Jungingenâ€ Strength 39,000 27,000 Casualties Unknown 8,000 dead 14,000 captured The Battle of Grunwald... The Thirteen Years War (also called the War of the Cities) started out as an uprising by Prussian cities and the local nobility with the goal of gaining independence from the Teutonic Knights. ... The Second Treaty of ToruÅ„, Zweiter Friede von Thorn, (also referred to as Peace of ToruÅ„ 1466) was a peace treaty signed in the Hanse city of Thorn/ToruÅ„ on October 19, 1466 between the Polish king, the Prussian cities, and duke of Pomerania on one side, and the Teutonic... Map of Royal Prussia (light pink) History - Established October 19, 1466 - Loss of autonomy 1 July 1569 - Annexed August 5, 1772 Royal Prussia (German: ; Polish: ) was a province of the Kingdom of Poland and then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1772. ... For other uses, see Prussia (disambiguation). ... Old Prussia was the land extending from the south-eastern coast of the Baltic Sea to the Masurian Lakes district, known as Prussia, was called Brus in the 8th century map of the Bavarian Geographer. ... Reformation redirects here. ...

Nicolaus Copernicus' father — a wealthy businessman, copper trader, and respected citizen of Toruń — died when Nicolaus was ten years old. Little is known of Nicolaus' mother, Barbara Watzenrode, except that she was born into a rich merchant family and appears to have predeceased her husband. After the elder Copernicus' death, Nicolaus' maternal uncle, Lucas Watzenrode, a church canon and later Prince-Bishop governor of the Archbishopric of Warmia, reared Nicolaus and his three siblings. The uncle's position facilitated Nicolaus' pursuit of a career within the church, enabling him to devote much time to his astronomy studies. Copper has played a significant part in the history of mankind, which has used the easily accessible uncompounded metal for nearly 10,000 years. ... Lucas Watzenrode the Younger (sometimes also Watzelrode), (*30 October 1447 in Thorun, â€ 29 March 1512, ibi) was bishop of Warmia (Ermland) and uncle of the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus. ... Canons, Bruges A Canon of the Seminary, Sint Niklaas, Flanders. ... Prince-Bishop was the title given bishops who held secular powers, beside their inherent clerical power. ... The Archbishopric of Warmia (formerly Bishopric of Warmia) (Polish: Archidiecezja warmiÅ„ska, Latin: Archidioecesis Varmiensis, German: Erzbistum Ermland) is a bishopric in Poland. ...

Copernicus' ethnicity is uncertain. His father, possibly a Germanized Slav,^[3] had been a citizen of Cracow but had left Poland's capital in 1460 to move to Toruń. Most historians believe Copernicus' mother was German.^[4] It has therefore been argued that Copernicus' "mother tongue" was German. While he was fluent in German and communicated with many German scholars, no direct evidence survives of the extent of his knowledge of Old Polish. As typical for the time, his main language for written communication was Latin. Canons, Bruges A Canon of the Seminary, Sint Niklaas, Flanders. ... Frombork Cathedral, with the Vistula Lagoon in the background Frombork (German: ) is a town in northern Poland, on the Vistula Lagoon in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodship, with a population of 2,602 in 2005. ... For the college, see Benedictine College. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 450 Ã— 600 pixels Full resolution (1200 Ã— 1600 pixel, file size: 733 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) de: Denkmal fÃ¼r Kopernikus in Thorn en: Monument to Copernicus in ToruÅ„ eo: Monumento pri Koperniko en ToruÅ„ pl: Pomnik MikoÅ‚aja Kopernika w... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 450 Ã— 600 pixels Full resolution (1200 Ã— 1600 pixel, file size: 733 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) de: Denkmal fÃ¼r Kopernikus in Thorn en: Monument to Copernicus in ToruÅ„ eo: Monumento pri Koperniko en ToruÅ„ pl: Pomnik MikoÅ‚aja Kopernika w... For other uses, see Prussia (disambiguation). ... Motto: Durabo (lat. ... Distribution of Slavic people by language The Slavic peoples are a linguistic and ethnic branch of Indo-European peoples, living mainly in Europe, where they constitute roughly a third of the population. ... Motto: none Voivodship Lesser Poland Municipal government Rada miasta Kraków Mayor Jacek Majchrowski Area 326,8 km² Population - city - urban - density 757,500 (2004 est. ... Motto: Durabo (lat. ... Old Polish (Polish: jÄ™zyk staropolski) is a name used to describe the period in the history of the Polish language between 9th and 16th century. ... For other uses, see Latin (disambiguation). ...

While numerous variations of his names are documented^[5], he signed himself mostly with Coppernic until the mid-1530s, after which he preferred Copernicus. Thus, on the title page of his epochal book, Nicolai Copernici Torinensis De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium Libri VI, the astronomer's name appears in the Latin form, "Nicolaus Copernicus". First introduced by Herder in 1776 by replacing each of the three "c" with the letter "k", Nikolaus Kopernikus became popular in German even though scholars argued for Coppernicus. The Polish rendering is "Mikołaj Kopernik", meaning "one who works with copper"^[6] For other uses, see Latin (disambiguation). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Copper has played a significant part in the history of mankind, which has used the easily accessible uncompounded metal for nearly 10,000 years. ...

Education

In 1491 Copernicus enrolled at the Kraków Academy (now Jagiellonian University), where he probably first encountered astronomy with Professor Albert Brudzewski. Astronomy soon fascinated him, and he began collecting a large library on the subject. Copernicus' library would later be carried off as war booty by the Swedes during "the Deluge" and is now at the Uppsala University Library. Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... For several academies alternatively called Krakow Academy, see Education in KrakÃ³w The Jagiellonian University (Polish: , often shortened to UJ) is located in KrakÃ³w, Poland. ... Courtyard of Collegium Maius, KrakÃ³w Collegium Maius or the Grand College in KrakÃ³w, Poland, (Polish: ), is the oldest building of the Jagiellonian University dating back to the 15th-century. ... For several academies alternatively called Krakow Academy, see Education in KrakÃ³w The Jagiellonian University (Polish: , often shortened to UJ) is located in KrakÃ³w, Poland. ... Wojciech Brudzewski Albert Blar Brudzewski, also known as Wojciech Brudzewski or Albert Blar of Brudzewo (Latin: Albertus de Brudzewo) (1445 in Brudzewo, Masovia â€“ 1497 in Vilnius) was a Polish astronomer, mathematician and prominent professor at the Akademia Krakowska in Cracow, where he stayed for twenty years. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Carolina Rediviva, the main building of the library, built 1816-1841 according to the design of Carl Fredrik Sundvall Uppsala University Library in Sweden consists of 19 different branch libraries, with the largest being that housed in the old main library building, Carolina Rediviva. ...

After four years in Kraków, followed by a brief stay back home in Toruń, Copernicus went to study law and medicine at the universities of Bologna and Padua. For other uses, see Law (disambiguation). ... For the chemical substances known as medicines, see medication. ... For the food product, see Bologna sausage. ... Padua, Italy, (Italian: IPA: , Latin: Patavium, Venetian: ) is a city in the Veneto, northern Italy, the economic and communications hub of the region. ...

Copernicus' uncle financed his education and hoped that Copernicus too would become a bishop. Copernicus, however, while studying canon and civil law at Bologna, met the famous astronomer, Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara. Copernicus attended Novara's lectures and became his disciple and assistant. The first observations that Copernicus made in 1497, together with Novara, are recorded in Copernicus' epochal book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium. Topics in Christianity Movements Â· Denominations Â· Other religions Ecumenism Â· Preaching Â· Prayer Music Â· Liturgy Â· Calendar Symbols Â· Art Â· Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul Â· Church Fathers Constantine Â· Athanasius Â· Augustine Anselm Â· Aquinas Â· Palamas Â· Luther Calvin Â· Wesley Arius Â· Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury Â· Catholic Pope Coptic Pope Â· Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box: This article... Topics in Christianity Movements Â· Denominations Ecumenism Â· Preaching Â· Prayer Music Â· Liturgy Â· Calendar Symbols Â· Art Â· Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul Â· Church Fathers Constantine Â· Athanasius Â· Augustine Anselm Â· Aquinas Â· Palamas Â· Wycliffe Tyndale Â· Luther Â· Calvin Â· Wesley Arius Â· Marcion of Sinope Pope Â· Patriarch of Constantinople Christianity Portal This box: Canon law is the term used for... For other uses of civil law, see civil law. ... Domenico Maria Novara (Ferrara, 1454-1504) was an astronomer and for 21 years was a professor at Bolognas university, where he became famous as Nicolaus Copernicus teacher. ... Nicolai Copernici Torinensis De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Libri VI - On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, by Nicolaus Copernicus of Torin, Six Books (title page of 2nd edition, ex officina Henricpetrina Basel, 1566) Heliocentric model of the solar system De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (English: ), first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg...

In 1497 Copernicus' uncle was ordained Bishop of Warmia, and Copernicus was named a canon at Frombork Cathedral, but he waited in Italy for the great Jubilee of 1500. Copernicus went to Rome, where he observed a lunar eclipse and gave some lectures in astronomy and mathematics. Download high resolution version (498x673, 157 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (498x673, 157 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Armillary sphere An armillary sphere (variations known as a spherical astrolabe, armilla, or armil) is a model of the celestial sphere, invented by the ancient Greek Eratosthenes in 255 BC. Its name comes from the Latin armilla (circle, bracelet), since it has a skeleton made of graduated metal circles linking... Categories: PAN | PAU | Scientific societies | Polish scientific societies | Stub | Education in Poland | Polish institutions | National academies ... For other uses, see Warsaw (disambiguation) and Warszawa (disambiguation). ... Prince Bishops / Bishops of Warmia: 1250-1274 Anselm of Meissen 1278-1300 Heinrich I Fleming 1301-1326 Eberhard of Neisse 1327-1328 Jordan 1329-1334 Heinrich II Wogenap 1337-1349 Herman of Prague 1350-1355 Joannes I of Meissen 1355-1373 Joannes II Stryprock 1373-1401 Heinrich III Sorbom 1401... Canons, Bruges A Canon of the Seminary, Sint Niklaas, Flanders. ... The concept of the Jubilee is a special year of remission of sins and universal pardon. ... For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation). ... This article is about astronomical eclipses. ...

He would thus have visited Frombork only in 1501. As soon as he arrived, he requested and obtained permission to complete his studies in Padua, where he studied medicine (with Guarico and Fracastoro), including astrological medicine, and at Ferrara, where in 1503 he received his doctorate in canon law. It has been surmised that it was in Padua that he encountered passages from Cicero and Plato about opinions of the ancients on the movement of the Earth, and formed the first intuition of his own future theory. In 1504 Copernicus began collecting observations and ideas pertinent to his theory. Girolamo Fracastoro (Fracastorius) (1478â€‘1553) was an Italian physician, scholar and poet. ... Ferrara is a city in Emilia-Romagna, Italy, capital city of the province of Ferrara. ... Topics in Christianity Movements Â· Denominations Ecumenism Â· Preaching Â· Prayer Music Â· Liturgy Â· Calendar Symbols Â· Art Â· Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul Â· Church Fathers Constantine Â· Athanasius Â· Augustine Anselm Â· Aquinas Â· Palamas Â· Wycliffe Tyndale Â· Luther Â· Calvin Â· Wesley Arius Â· Marcion of Sinope Pope Â· Patriarch of Constantinople Christianity Portal This box: Canon law is the term used for... For other uses, see Cicero (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ...

Work

In 1505, Copernicus moved to Frombork (Frauenburg), a town in the Prince-Bishopric of Warmia north and downstream of Toruń on the Vistula Lagoon. The Bishopric of Warmia, within Royal Prussia, though subject to the Polish crown, enjoyed substantial autonomy, with its own Diet, army, monetary unit and treasury. Some time before his return to Warmia, he received a position at the Collegiate Church of the Holy Cross in Wrocław (Breslau), Silesia, Bohemia, which he held for many years and only resigned for health reasons shortly before his death. Copernicus remained for the rest of his life a burgher of Warmia (Bishopric of Warmia). During the Protestant Reformation he remained a loyal subject of the Catholic Prince-Bishops and the Catholic Polish King when in 1525 Duke Albert and the Duchy of Prussia became a secular entity where monarch and burghers alike adopted Protestantism. Throughout his life he performed astronomical observations and calculations, but only as time permitted and never in a professional capacity. 1505 was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Frombork Cathedral, with the Vistula Lagoon in the background Frombork (German: ) is a town in northern Poland, on the Vistula Lagoon in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodship, with a population of 2,602 in 2005. ... Prince-Bishop was the title given bishops who held secular powers, beside their inherent clerical power. ... Warmia in 1547 Warmia (Polish: , German: , Latin: Varmia, also historically known as Ermeland) is a region between Pomerania and Masuria in northeastern Poland. ... Motto: Durabo (lat. ... Landsat photo Vistula Lagoon Vistula Lagoon (or Bay, Gulf) is the sweet water lagoon on the Baltic Sea that is cut off from Gdansk Bay by the Vistula Spit. ... Look up autonomy, autonomous in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... In politics, a Diet is a formal deliberative assembly. ... Motto: Miasto spotkaÅ„ (the meeting place) Coordinates: , Country Poland Voivodeship Lower Silesian Powiat city county Gmina WrocÅ‚aw Established 10th century City Rights 1262 Government - Mayor RafaÅ‚ Dutkiewicz Area - City 292. ... Silesia (English pronunciation [], Czech: ; German: ; Latin: ; Polish: ; Silesian: ÅšlÅ¯nsk) is a historical region in central Europe, located along the upper and middle Oder River, upper Vistula River, and along the Sudetes, Carpathian (Silesian Beskids) mountain range. ... Flag of Bohemia Bohemia (Czech: ; German: ) is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western and middle thirds of the Czech Republic. ... Burgher can refer to: a title; in the European Middle Ages, a burgher was any freeman of a burgh or borough; or any inhabitant of a borough, a person who lives in town (in Dutch the word for citizen is burger and the German cognate is BÃ¼rger). ... Warmia in 1547 Warmia (Polish: , German: , Latin: Varmia, also historically known as Ermeland) is a region between Pomerania and Masuria in northeastern Poland. ... Bishopric of Warmia was one of the bishoprics found by Teutonic Order on the area of newly conquered Prussia. ... The Protestant Reformation was a movement which began in the 16th century as a series of attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church, but ended in division and the establishment of new institutions, most importantly Lutheranism, Reformed churches, and Anabaptists. ... Prince Bishops / Bishops of Warmia: 1250-1274 Anselm of Meissen 1278-1300 Heinrich I Fleming 1301-1326 Eberhard of Neisse 1327-1328 Jordan 1329-1334 Heinrich II Wogenap 1337-1349 Herman of Prague 1350-1355 Joannes I of Meissen 1355-1373 Joannes II Stryprock 1373-1401 Heinrich III Sorbom 1401...

Copernicus oversaw the defense of the castle of Olsztyn (Allenstein) at the head of Royal Polish forces when the town was besieged by the forces of Albrecht Hohenzollern, Grand Master of the Teutonic Order during the Polish-Teutonic War (1519–1521). He also participated in the peace negotiations. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 657 Ã— 599 pixels Full resolution (2014 Ã— 1837 pixel, file size: 939 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) pl: Pomnik MikoÅ‚aja Kopernika przy wejÅ›ciu na zamek w Olsztynie de: Bronzeplastik fÃ¼r Nikolaus Kopernikus next to the entrance of Olsztyn castle... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 657 Ã— 599 pixels Full resolution (2014 Ã— 1837 pixel, file size: 939 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) pl: Pomnik MikoÅ‚aja Kopernika przy wejÅ›ciu na zamek w Olsztynie de: Bronzeplastik fÃ¼r Nikolaus Kopernikus next to the entrance of Olsztyn castle... Olsztyn ( ; German: ; Old Prussian: AlnÄsteini) is a city in northeast Poland, on the Åyna river. ... Olsztyn ( ; German: ; Old Prussian: AlnÄsteini) is a city in northeast Poland, on the Åyna river. ... Albert of Prussia Albert I Hohenzollern of Brandenburg-Ansbach (German: ; Latin: Albertus; 16 May 1490 â€“ 20 March 1568) was Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights and, after converting to Lutheranism, the first duke of Ducal Prussia, which he made the first state to adopt the Lutheran faith. ... Combatants Teutonic Order Kingdom of Poland Commanders Albert of Hohenzollern Sigismund I the Old MikoÅ‚aj Firlej Strength tens of thousands, but likely under 50,000 tens of thousands, but likely under 50,000 Polish-Teutonic War of 1519â€“1521 (German: , horsemens war) was the war between the Kingdom...

Copernicus worked for years with the Royal Prussian Diet, with Albert, Duke of Prussia and advised the Polish king Sigismund I the Old on monetary reform. Holding the office of canon, he traveled extensively on government business and as a diplomat on behalf of the Prince-Bishop of Warmia.^[7] He participated in the discussions in the East Prussian Diet about coin reform in the Prussian countries. One issue of concern to participants of the Diet was who had the right to mint coins. The task required much diplomacy, but proved to be a success. The difficulties were the different political situation, which Prussia found itself in at the time. Ducal Prussia became a Protestant state in 1525. Copernicus translated the coin reform treatise into Latin for external use. In 1530 at the Elbląg (Elbing) negotiations agreement came with Duke Albrecht of Brandenburg Prussia. Map of Royal Prussia (light pink) History - Established October 19, 1466 - Loss of autonomy 1 July 1569 - Annexed August 5, 1772 Royal Prussia (German: ; Polish: ) was a province of the Kingdom of Poland and then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1772. ... In politics, a Diet is a formal deliberative assembly. ... Albert of Prussia Albert (German: ; Latin: ; 16 May 1490 â€“ 20 March 1568) was the 37th Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights and, after converting to Lutheranism, the first duke of the Duchy of Prussia, which was the first state to adopt the Lutheran faith. ... Reign From December 8, 1506 until April 1, 1548 Coronation On January 24, 1507 in the Wawel Cathedral, Kraków, Poland Royal House Jagiellon Parents Kazimierz IV Jagiellończyk Elżbieta Rakuszanka Consorts Katarzyna Telniczanka Barbara Zapolya Bona Sforza Children with Katarzyna Telniczanka Jan Regina Katarzyna with Barbara... Monetary Reform is accounting reform that reaches more deeply into banking central bank, money supply and monetary policy. ... Canons, Bruges A Canon of the Seminary, Sint Niklaas, Flanders. ... This page is about negotiations; for the board game, see Diplomacy (game). ... Prince-Bishop was the title given bishops who held secular powers, beside their inherent clerical power. ... East Prussia (red), within the Kingdom of Prussia (blue), within the German Empire (black), as of 1871. ... In politics, a Diet is a formal deliberative assembly. ... This article is about monetary coins. ... Royal and Ducal Prussia in the second half of 16th century Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with its major subdivisions as of 1619, superimposed on present-day national borders Ducal Prussia, or the Duchy of Prussia (German: ; Polish: ), was a duchy established in 1525 in the eastern part of Prussia, as western... Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... ElblÄ…g (IPA: ; German: ) is a city in northern Poland with 127,892 inhabitants (2006). ...

In 1526 Copernicus wrote a study on the value of money Monetae Cudendae Ratio. In it, Copernicus formulated an early iteration of the theory, now called "Gresham's Law," that "bad" (debased) coinage drives "good" (un-debased) coinage out of circulation, 70 years before Gresham. He also formulated a version of quantity theory of money. For other uses, see Money (disambiguation). ... Greshams law is commonly stated as: When there is a legal tender currency, bad money drives good money out of circulation. or more accurately Money overvalued by the State will drive money undervalued by the State out of circulation. ... Coinage is: A Drinking game also known as Quarters a series of coins struck as part of currency a magazine about numismatics, capitalized: COINage The right or process of making coins The creation of a neologism, or new word; see word coinage The duty or tax on refined tin, abolished... In economics, the velocity of money refers to a key term in the quantity theory of money, which centers on the equation of exchange: where is the total amount of money in circulation in an economy at any one time (say, on average during a month). ...

Copernicus later served as a physician to Duke Albrecht who in 1551 financed the publishing of a volume of his astrological observations.^[8]

Heliocentrism

In 1514 Copernicus made available to friends his Commentariolus (Little Commentary), a short handwritten text describing his ideas about the heliocentric hypothesis. Thereafter he continued gathering data for a more detailed work. The Commentariolus (litte commentary) is a manuscript of Nicolaus Copernicus in which he outlines his revolutionary theory of the solar system. ...

In 1533, Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter delivered in Rome a series of lectures outlining Copernicus' theory. The lectures were heard with interest by Pope Clement VII and several Catholic cardinals. Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Jan Matejko , self-portrait. ... Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter (born 1506 in Nellingen/Blaubeuren near Ulm; died 28 March 1557 in Regensburg), also called Widmestadius or Albert Widmannstadt, was a humanist, orientalist, philologer, and theologer In 1533, as secretary of Nikolaus Cardinal von SchÃ¶nberg, he delivered a series of lectures in Rome, outlining Nicolaus Copernicus... For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation). ... For the antipope (1378â€“1394) see antipope Clement VII. Pope Clement VII (May 26, 1478 â€“ September 25, 1534), born Giulio di Giuliano de Medici, was a cardinal from 1513 to 1523 and was Pope from 1523 to 1534. ... For other uses, see Cardinal (disambiguation). ...

On 1 November 1536, Archbishop of Capua Nicholas Schönberg wrote a letter to Copernicus from Rome: is the 305th day of the year (306th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1536 was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. ... The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Capua, also called the Archdiocese of Capua, is an ecclesiastical territory or diocese of the Roman Catholic Church in Italy. ... Nikolaus Cardinal von SchÃ¶nberg (born 11 August 1472 in Roth-SchÃ¶nberg near Meissen, Saxony/Germany, died 7 September 1537 in Capua, Italy) was an Archbishop of Capua. ...

By then Copernicus' work was nearing its definitive form, and rumors about his theory had reached educated people all over Europe. Despite urgings from many quarters, Copernicus delayed with the publication of his book, perhaps from fear of criticism — a fear delicately expressed in the subsequent Dedication of his masterpiece to Pope Paul III. About this, historians of science David Lindberg and Ronald Numbers have written: In his 1543 book entitled, The Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, Nicolaus Copernicus outlined his mathematical exposition which revived the concept -- and more importantly confirmed -- that the Earth was not the center of the universe, but instead rotated around the Sun. ... Pope Paul III with his cardinal-nephew Alessandro Cardinal Farnese (left) and his other grandson (right), Ottavio Farnese, Duke of Parma Pope Paul III (February 29, 1468 â€“ November 10, 1549), born Alessandro Farnese, was Pope of the Roman Catholic Church from 1534 to his death 1549. ... Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by a global community of researchers making use of a body of techniques known as scientific methods, emphasizing the observation, experimentation and scientific explanation of real world phenomena. ... David C. Lindberg is an American historian of science. ... Ronald Numbers Ronald L. Numbers (born 1942) is an American historian of science who received his Ph. ...

In 1616, in connection with the Galileo affair, Copernicus's book was suspended by the Catholic Church's Congregation of the Index until it could be corrected, on the grounds that the Pythagorean doctrine of the motion of the Earth and the immobility of the Sun was "false and altogether opposed to the Holy Scripture".^[12]^[13] The corrections, which required the omission or alteration of nine sentences, were issued in 1620.^[14] The same edict which suspended De Revolutionibus also prohibited any work which defended the immobility of the sun or the mobility of the earth, or attempted to reconcile them with Scripture. In 1633 Galileo Galilei was convicted of grave suspicion of heresy for "following the position of Copernicus, which [is] contrary to the true sense and authority of Holy Scripture ..."^[15], and was placed under house arrest for the rest of his life, most of which was spent at his home near Florence. The general prohibition of works defending heliocentrism was omitted from the Index issued in 1758,^[16] but the specific prohibition of the original uncensored versions of De Revolutionibus and Galileo's Dialogue remained until it was finally dropped from the Index in 1835.^[17] Galileo before the Holy Office, a 19th century painting by Joseph-Nicolas Robert-Fleury The Galileo affair, in which Galileo Galilei came into conflict with the Catholic Church over his support of Copernican astronomy, is often considered a defining moment in the history of the relationship between religion and science. ... The name Catholic Church can mean a visible organization that refers to itself as Catholic, or the invisible Christian Church, viz. ... Venetiis, M. D. LXIIII. The Index Librorum Prohibitorum (List of Prohibited Books) is a list of publications which the Catholic Church censored for being a danger to itself and the faith of its members. ... Events February 13 - Galileo Galilei arrives in Rome for his trial before the Inquisition. ... Galileo redirects here. ... This article is about the city in Italy. ... Year 1758 (MDCCLVIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the 11-day slower Julian calendar). ... Frontispiece and title page of the Dialogue The Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo) was a 1632 book by Galileo, comparing the Copernican system, and the traditional Ptolemaic system. ... | Come and take it, slogan of the Texas Revolution 1835 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ...

The book

Copernicus was still working on De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (even if not convinced that he wanted to publish it) when in 1539 Georg Joachim Rheticus, a Wittenberg mathematician, arrived in Frombork. Philipp Melanchthon had arranged for Rheticus to visit several astronomers and study with them. Rheticus became Copernicus' pupil, staying with him for two years, during which he wrote a book, Narratio prima (First Account), outlining the essence of Copernicus' theory. In 1542 Rheticus published a treatise on trigonometry by Copernicus (later included in the second book of De revolutionibus). Under strong pressure from Rheticus, and having seen the favorable first general reception of his work, Copernicus finally agreed to give the book to his close friend, Tiedemann Giese, bishop of Chełmno (Kulm), to be delivered to Rheticus for printing by Johannes Petreius at Nuremberg (Nürnberg). Image File history File links Title page of De revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Title page of De revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Nicolai Copernici Torinensis De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Libri VI (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, by Nicolaus Copernicus of ToruÅ„, Six Books: title page of 2nd edition, Basel, 1566). ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 448 Ã— 599 pixels Full resolution (650 Ã— 869 pixel, file size: 85 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Philipp Melanchthon, engraving by Albrecht DÃ¼rer 1526 File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 448 Ã— 599 pixels Full resolution (650 Ã— 869 pixel, file size: 85 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Philipp Melanchthon, engraving by Albrecht DÃ¼rer 1526 File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects... Portrait of Philipp Melanchthon, by Lucas Cranach the Elder. ... Nicolai Copernici Torinensis De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Libri VI - On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, by Nicolaus Copernicus of Torin, Six Books (title page of 2nd edition, ex officina Henricpetrina Basel, 1566) Heliocentric model of the solar system De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (English: ), first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg... Georg Joachim von Lauchen, also known as Rheticus (February 16, 1514 â€“ December 4, 1574), was a mathematician, cartographer, navigational and other instrument maker, medical practitioner, and teacher. ... Statue of Martin Luther in the main square Wittenberg, officially [Die] Lutherstadt Wittenberg, is a town in Germany, in the Bundesland Saxony-Anhalt, at 12Â° 59 E, 51Â° 51 N, on the Elbe river. ... Leonhard Euler, considered one of the greatest mathematicians of all time A mathematician is a person whose primary area of study and research is the field of mathematics. ... Portrait of Philipp Melanchthon, by Lucas Cranach the Elder. ... Georg Joachim von Lauchen a. ... Wikibooks has a book on the topic of Trigonometry All of the trigonometric functions of an angle Î¸ can be constructed geometrically in terms of a unit circle centered at O. Trigonometry (from Greek trigÅnon triangle + metron measure[1]), informally called trig, is a branch of mathematics that deals with... Nicolai Copernici Torinensis De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Libri VI - On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, by Nicolaus Copernicus of Torin, Six Books (title page of 2nd edition, ex officina Henricpetrina Basel, 1566) Heliocentric model of the solar system De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (English: ), first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg... Tiedemann Giese (June 1, 1480 - October 23, 1550) of the Patrician family Giese from Gdańsk became bishop of Chełmno, then bishop of Warmia. ... CheÅ‚mno (older English: ; German: ) is a town in northern Poland with 22,000 inhabitants (1995) and the historical capital of CheÅ‚mno Land (Culmerland). ... Johann(es) Petreius (died 1550) was a German printer in Nuremberg. ... NÃ¼rnberg redirects here. ...

Death

Copernicus died on May 24, 1543. Legend has it that the first printed copy of De revolutionibus was placed in Copernicus' hands on the very day he died, allowing him to take farewell of his opus vitae (life's work). He is reputed to have woken from a stroke-induced coma, looked at his book, and died peacefully. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2272x1704, 2016 KB) Summary author: Maciej SzczepaÅ„czyk - user Mathiasrex Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Frombork Nicolaus Copernicus Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2272x1704, 2016 KB) Summary author: Maciej SzczepaÅ„czyk - user Mathiasrex Licensing File links The following pages link to this file: Frombork Nicolaus Copernicus Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or... Frombork Cathedral, with the Vistula Lagoon in the background Frombork (German: ) is a town in northern Poland, on the Vistula Lagoon in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodship, with a population of 2,602 in 2005. ... is the 144th day of the year (145th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... // Events February 21 - Battle of Wayna Daga - A combined army of Ethiopian and Portuguese troops defeat the armies of Adal led by Ahmed Gragn. ... Nicolai Copernici Torinensis De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Libri VI - On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, by Nicolaus Copernicus of Torin, Six Books (title page of 2nd edition, ex officina Henricpetrina Basel, 1566) Heliocentric model of the solar system De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (English: ), first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg... For other uses, see Stroke (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Coma (disambiguation). ...

Copernicus was reportedly buried in the Cathedral of Frauenburg where archeologists had long vainly searched for his remains. In August 2005, a team of archeologists led by Jerzy Gąssowski, head of an archaeology and anthropology institute in Pułtusk, discovered what they believe to be Copernicus' grave and remains, after scanning beneath the floor of the Cathedral. The find came after a year of searching, and the discovery was announced only after further research, on November 3. Gąssowski said he was "almost 100 percent sure it is Copernicus". Forensic expert Capt. Dariusz Zajdel of the Central Forensic Laboratory of the Polish Police used the skull to reconstruct a face that closely resembled the features — including a broken nose and a scar above the left eye — on a Copernicus self-portrait.^[18] The expert also determined that the skull had belonged to a man who had died about age 70 — Copernicus' age at the time of his death. The grave was in poor condition, and not all the remains were found. The archeologists hoped to find deceased relatives of Copernicus in order to attempt DNA identification. For referencing in Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Citing sources. ... Anthropology (from Greek: á¼€Î½Î¸ÏÏ‰Ï€Î¿Ï‚, anthropos, human being; and Î»ÏŒÎ³Î¿Ï‚, logos, knowledge) is the study of humanity. ... City hall PuÅ‚tusk is a town in Poland by the river Narew, 70 km north of Warsaw. ... Forensics or forensic science is the application of science to questions which are of interest to the legal system. ... The structure of part of a DNA double helix Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is a nucleic acid molecule that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms. ...

Copernican system

Split from main article Nicolaus Copernicus in order to concentrate on his work: // Much has been written about earlier heliocentric theories. ...

Predecessors

Early traces of a heliocentric model are found in several anonymous Vedic Sanskrit texts composed in ancient India before the 7th century BCE. Additionally, the Indian astronomer and mathematician Aryabhata anticipated elements of Copernicus' work by over a thousand years. In astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Universe and/or the Solar System. ... Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, which are the earliest sacred texts of India,. The Vedas were first passed down orally and therefore have no known date. ... The History of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization, which flourished in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent from 3300 to 1700 BCE. This Bronze Age civilization was followed by the Iron Age Vedic period, which witnessed the rise of major kingdoms known as the Mahajanapadas. ... (8th century BC - 7th century BC - 6th century BC - other centuries) (700s BC - 690s BC - 680s BC - 670s BC - 660s BC - 650s BC - 640s BC - 630s BC - 620s BC - 610s BC - 600s BC - other decades) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) Events Scythians arrived in Asia Collapse... For other uses, see Aryabhata (disambiguation). ...

Aristarchus of Samos in the 3rd century BCE elaborated some theories of Heraclides Ponticus (the daily rotation of the Earth on its axis, the revolution of Venus and Mercury around the Sun) to propose what was the first scientific model of a heliocentric solar system: the Earth and all other planets revolving around the Sun, the Earth rotating around its axis daily, the Moon in turn revolving around the Earth once a month. His heliocentric work has not survived, so we can only speculate about what led him to his conclusions. It is notable that, according to Plutarch, a contemporary of Aristarchus accused him of impiety for "putting the Earth in motion." For other uses of this name, including the grammarian Aristarchus of Samothrace, see Aristarchus Statue of Aristarchus at Aristotle University in Thessalonica, Greece Aristarchus (Greek: á¼ˆÏÎ¯ÏƒÏ„Î±ÏÏ‡Î¿Ï‚; 310 BC - ca. ... (4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - other centuries) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) Events The first two Punic Wars between Carthage and Rome over dominance in western Mediterranean Rome conquers Spain Great Wall of China begun Indian traders regularly visited Arabia Scythians occupy... Heraclides Ponticus (387 - 312 BCE), also known as Heraklides, was a Greek philosopher who lived and died at Heraclea, now Eregli, Turkey. ... Mestrius Plutarchus (Greek: Î Î»Î¿ÏÏ„Î±ÏÏ‡Î¿Ï‚; 46 - 127), better known in English as Plutarch, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist. ...

Copernicus cited Aristarchus and Philolaus in a surviving early manuscript of his book, stating: "Philolaus believed in the mobility of the earth, and some even say that Aristarchus of Samos was of that opinion." For reasons unknown (possibly from reluctance to quote pre-Christian sources), he did not include this passage in the published book. It has been argued that in developing the mathematics of heliocentrism Copernicus drew on not just the Greek, but also the work of Muslim astronomers, especially the works of Nasir al-Din Tusi (Tusi-couple), Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi (Urdi lemma) and Ibn al-Shatir. Copernicus also discussed the theories of Ibn Battuta and Averroes in his major work. Statue of Aristarchus at Aristoteles University in Thessaloniki, Greece Aristarchus (310 BC - circa 230 BC) was a Greek astronomer and mathematician, born in Samos, Greece. ... Philolaus (circa 480 BC â€“ circa 405 BC) was a Greek mathematician and philosopher. ... Samos (Greek Î£Î¬Î¼Î¿Ï‚; see also List of traditional Greek place names) is an island in southeastern Greece in the Aegean Sea, off the coast of Turkey. ... This is a sub-article of Islamic science and astronomy. ... Nasir Tusi Abu Jafar Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn al-Hasan Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201â€“1274) was a Persian scientist, of Shia Islamic belief, born in Tus, Khorasan, Iran. ... The Tusi couple is a 2-cusped hypocycloid obtained by rolling a circle of radius inside a circle of radius . ... Muâ€™ayyad al-Din al-â€™Urdi was one of the astronomers of the Maragha observatory in Persia. ... Ibn al-Shatir (or Ibn ash-Shatir) (1304â€“1375) was a Muslim astronomer of Damascus. ... It has been suggested that Travelling route of Ibn Batuta be merged into this article or section. ... Ibn Rushd, known as Averroes (1126 â€“ December 10, 1198), was an Andalusian-Arab philosopher and physician, a master of philosophy and Islamic law, mathematics, and medicine. ...

Ptolemy

The prevailing theory in Europe as Copernicus was writing was that created by Ptolemy in his Almagest, dating from about 150 A.D.. The Ptolemaic system drew on many previous theories that viewed Earth as a stationary center of the universe. Stars were embedded in a large outer sphere which rotated relatively rapidly, while the planets dwelt in smaller spheres between — a separate one for each planet. Image File history File links Ptolemaeus. ... Image File history File links Ptolemaeus. ... This article is about the geographer, mathematician and astronomer Ptolemy. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 433 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (1403 Ã— 1944 pixels, file size: 1. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 433 Ã— 600 pixelsFull resolution (1403 Ã— 1944 pixels, file size: 1. ... This article is about the geographer, mathematician and astronomer Ptolemy. ... Almagest is the Latin form of the Arabic name (al-kitabu-l-mijisti, i. ... The Roman army consists of 400,000 men. ... Mediaeval drawing of the Ptolemaic system. ...

Copernicus

Copernicus's major theory was published in the book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) during the year of his death, 1543, though he had arrived at his theory several decades earlier. Nicolai Copernici Torinensis De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Libri VI - On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, by Nicolaus Copernicus of Torin, Six Books (title page of 2nd edition, ex officina Henricpetrina Basel, 1566) Heliocentric model of the solar system De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (English: ), first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg... // Events February 21 - Battle of Wayna Daga - A combined army of Ethiopian and Portuguese troops defeat the armies of Adal led by Ahmed Gragn. ...

In his Commentariolus Copernicus had summarized his system with the following list of seven assumptions:^[19]

Enduring significance

Copernicus' theory is of extraordinary importance in the history of human knowledge. Many authors suggest that few other persons have exerted a comparable influence on human culture in general and on science in particular.^{[citation needed]} There are parallels with the life of Charles Darwin, in that both men produced a short early description of their theories, but held back on a definitive publication until late in life, against a backdrop of controversy, particularly with regard to religion. This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. ... For other people of the same surname, and places and things named after Charles Darwin, see Darwin. ...

Many meanings have been ascribed to Copernicus' theory, apart from its strictly scientific import. His work affected religion as well as science, religious belief as well as freedom of scientific inquiry. Copernicus' rank as a scientist is often compared with that of Galileo. A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. ... For other uses, see Freedom. ... A model of scientific inquiry has two functions, first, to provide a descriptive account of how scientific inquiry is carried out in practice, second, to provide an explanatory account of why scientific inquiry succeeds as well as it appears to do in arriving at genuine knowledge of its objects. ... Galileo redirects here. ...

A corollary of Copernicanism is that scientific law need not be congruent with appearance. This contrasts with Aristotle's system, which placed much more importance on the derivation of knowledge through the senses. For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation). ... Senses Senses are a UK based alternative rock band from Coventry. ...

Copernicus' concept marked a scientific revolution. The publication of his De revolutionibus orbium coelestium is often taken to mark the beginning of the Scientific Revolution, together with the publication of Andreas Vesalius' De Humani Corporis Fabrica.^[20] This article is about the period or event in history. ... Nicolai Copernici Torinensis De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, Libri VI - On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, by Nicolaus Copernicus of Torin, Six Books (title page of 2nd edition, ex officina Henricpetrina Basel, 1566) Heliocentric model of the solar system De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (English: ), first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg... This article is about the period or event in history. ... Andreas Vesalius (Brussels, December 31, 1514 - Zakynthos, October 15, 1564) was an anatomist, physician, and author of one of the most influential books on human anatomy, De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body). ... The title page of the Fabrica. ...

Today, Copernicus' birthplace of Toruń is preserved as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The town of Frombork, where he lived for many years, was heavily damaged during the Second World War, but much of the town was rebuilt between 1966 and 1973 by members of the Polish Scouting Association in time for the 500th anniversary of his birth.^[21] Motto: Durabo (lat. ... Elabana Falls is in Lamington National Park, part of the Central Eastern Rainforest Reserves World Heritage site in Queensland, Australia. ... Frombork Cathedral, with the Vistula Lagoon in the background Frombork (German: ) is a town in northern Poland, on the Vistula Lagoon in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodship, with a population of 2,602 in 2005. ... Mushroom cloud from the nuclear explosion over Nagasaki rising 18 km into the air. ... ZwiÄ…zek Harcerstwa Polskiego (The Polish Scouting and Guiding Association, ZHP) is the coeducational Polish Scouting organization recognized by the World Organization of the Scout Movement and the World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts. ...

Quotes

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe:^{[citation needed]} Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links Mikolaj_Kopernik. ... Image File history File links Mikolaj_Kopernik. ... Hermes Trismegistus (Greek: , thrice-great Hermes; Latin: Mercurius ter Maximus) is the syncretism of the Greek god Hermes and the Egyptian god Thoth. ... Electra or Elektra is a Greek tragic play by Sophocles. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (542x800, 143 KB) Description: Oil painting of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) by Josef Stieler, 1828. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (542x800, 143 KB) Description: Oil painting of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832) by Josef Stieler, 1828. ... â€œGoetheâ€ redirects here. ... â€œGoetheâ€ redirects here. ...

Friedrich Nietzsche:^{[citation needed]} Image File history File links Nietzsche. ... Image File history File links Nietzsche. ... Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15, 1844 â€“ August 25, 1900) (IPA: ) was a nineteenth-century German philosopher. ... Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15, 1844 â€“ August 25, 1900) (IPA: ) was a nineteenth-century German philosopher. ...

Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (General German Biography), 1875: ^[26] Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB) is one of the most important and most comprehensive biographical reference works in german language. ...

Johannes Rau as President of Germany (1999-2004) in an address to the Polish people in 1999:^[27] Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 452 Ã— 600 pixels Full resolution (772 Ã— 1024 pixel, file size: 170 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Johannes Rau President of Germany... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 452 Ã— 600 pixels Full resolution (772 Ã— 1024 pixel, file size: 170 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Johannes Rau President of Germany... Johannes Rau (January 16, 1931, Wuppertal â€“ January 27, 2006, Berlin) was a German politician of the SPD. He was the eighth President of the Federal Republic of Germany from July 1, 1999 until June 30, 2004 and prime minister of North Rhine Westfalia from 1978 to 1998. ... Johannes Rau (January 16, 1931, Wuppertal â€“ January 27, 2006, Berlin) was a German politician of the SPD. He was the eighth President of the Federal Republic of Germany from July 1, 1999 until June 30, 2004 and prime minister of North Rhine Westfalia from 1978 to 1998. ... The President of Germany is Germanys head of state. ...

Declaration of the Polish Senate, June 12, 2003: Johannes Hevelius Johannes Hevelius (Latin), also called Johann Hewelke, Johannes HÃ¶welcke or Johannes Hewel (in German), or Jan Heweliusz (in Polish), (born January 28, 1611 â€“ died January 28, 1687), was a councillor and mayor in Danzig (GdaÅ„sk). ... Arthur Schopenhauer (February 22, 1788 â€“ September 21, 1860) was a German philosopher who believed that the will to live is the fundamental reality and that this will, being a constant striving, is insatiable and ultimately yields only suffering. ... Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (24 May 1686 â€“ 16 September 1736) was a German physicist and engineer who worked most of his life in the Dutch Republic. ... The Polish Senate The Senate (Senat) is the upper house of the Polish parliament. ...

Nationality

It remains a matter of dispute whether a nationality should be attributed in hindsight to Copernicus, and if so, if he should be regarded as German or Polish.^[28] Already from the late 18th century until 1918, in a time in which no Polish state existed, the issue was noted as controversial, e. g. on German records at least since 1875 (see ADB quote above)^[29] Current German sources call the controversy, as manifested in older literature, superfluous and shameful.^[30] While the Catholic Encyclopedia does not attribute a nationality^[31], Encyclopædia Britannica^[32] and Microsoft Encarta^[33] introduce him as "Polish astronomer", while referring to the cities of his life by their German names, not the Polish ones. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (814x964, 472 KB)Bust of Nicolaus Copernicus at Jordan Park, KrakÃ³w. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (814x964, 472 KB)Bust of Nicolaus Copernicus at Jordan Park, KrakÃ³w. ... Jordan Park, known also as Jordans Garden, set up in 1889 as the first public playground in KrakÃ³w, Poland, and perhaps as the first in Europe, was equipped with exercise fixtures modeled after playgrounds in the USA. It is located on the grounds of KrakÃ³wâ€™s B... Motto: none Voivodship Lesser Poland Municipal government Rada miasta Kraków Mayor Jacek Majchrowski Area 326,8 km² Population - city - urban - density 757,500 (2004 est. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... UN and U.N. redirect here. ... Although the majority of the szlachta was reconciled to the end of the Commonwealth in 1795, the possibility of Polish independence was kept alive by events within and without Poland throughout the nineteenth century. ... Copernicus redirects here. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... The EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by EncyclopÃ¦dia Britannica, Inc. ... Microsoft Corporation, (NASDAQ: MSFT, HKSE: 4338) is a multinational computer technology corporation with global annual revenue of US$44. ... Encarta is a digital multimedia encyclopedia published by Microsoft Corporation. ...

Copernicus was born, grew up and spend most of his life in Royal Prussia and therefore was a subject of the Polish crown.^[34] This is cited as a major reason why he is commonly regarded as Polish. However, in Copernicus' time, nationality had yet to play as important a role as it would later, and people generally did not think of themselves primarily as Poles or Germans.^[35] Indeed, he might have considered himself to be both at the same time. Crown of the Polish Kingdom, or just colloquially the Crown (Polish:Korona) is the archaic name for territories of Poland, distinguishing them from territories of Grand Duchy of Lithuania or vassal territories like Duchy of Prussia or Duchy of Courland, which had varying degrees of autonomy. ...

The bust of Copernicus was in 1807 one of the first made to be enshrined later at the Walhalla temple, the German Hall of Fame. In 1875, when no Polish state and no Polish citizenship existed, with Poles being subjects to Russian, Austrian or Prussian monarchs for a century, the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie article on Copernicus acknowledged the Polish aspects of his life. In Nazi Germany, Copernicus was claimed to be purely German;^[36]. Since 1945, German assertions have returned to balanced views, while some Soviet bloc-era editions in socialist East Germany pronounced him a Pole. Acknowledgment of his connections to Poland notwithstanding, however, in Germany Copernicus is not considered "un-German" or "non-German." In 2003 he was declared eligible for the Unsere Besten (Our Best), a ranking of the "200 greatest Germans" organized by ZDF TV. Since 1989, three German TV satellites had been named DFS Kopernikus. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 593 Ã— 599 pixelsFull resolution (858 Ã— 867 pixel, file size: 1. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 593 Ã— 599 pixelsFull resolution (858 Ã— 867 pixel, file size: 1. ... Bust of Richard Bently by Roubiliac A bust is a sculpture depicting a persons chest, shoulders, and head, usually supported by a stand. ... View of the Walhalla from the Danube View of the Walhalla main hall The Walhalla, Hall of Fame and Honor is a hall of fame located on the Danube River 10 km from Regensburg, in Bavaria, Germany. ... Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB) is one of the most important and most comprehensive biographical reference works in german language. ... Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ... During the Cold War, the Eastern Bloc (or Soviet Bloc) comprised the following Central and Eastern European countries: Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Albania (until the early 1960s, see below), the Soviet Union, and Czechoslovakia. ... Unsere Besten (Our Best) was a television series shown in German public television (ZDF) in November 2003, similar to the BBC series 100 Greatest Britons. ... Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen (Second German Television), ZDF, is a public service German television channel based in Mainz. ... DFS-Kopernikus meaning Deutscher Fernmeldesatellit Kopernikus) was the name of three geostationary satellite of Deutsche Bundespost and later Deutsche Telekom AG. They are no more in use. ...

In Poland, in 1973, the 500th anniversary of Copernicus' birth was an occasion to celebrate the "great Pole"; a banknote was issued, bearing Copernicus' likeness. Thirty years later, on June 12, 2003, the Polish Senate declared him an "exceptional Pole." File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... ISO 4217 Code PLN User(s) Poland Inflation 2. ... is the 163rd day of the year (164th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

These claims and counter-claims are somewhat anachronistic. In Copernicus' lifetime, "nationality" did not have the same meaning as today. Many ethnic Germans were loyal subjects of the Polish crown. The universal language of science was Latin, and academics throughout Europe communicated in that idiom.

References

Angus Armitage (1951). The World of Copernicus, New York: Mentor Books. ISBN 0-8464-0979-8.
Coyne, George V., S.J. (2005). The Church's Most Recent Attempt to Dispel the Galileo Myth, In McMullin (2005, pp.340–359).
Owen Gingerich (2004). The Book Nobody Read, Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-303476-6.
David C. Goodman and Colin A. Russell, eds. (1991). The Rise of Scientific Europe, 1500-1800. Dunton Green, Sevenoaks, Kent: Hodder & Stoughton: The Open University. ISBN 0-340-55861-X.
Heilbron, John L. (2005). Censorship of Astronomy in Italy after Galileo, In McMullin (2005, pp.279–322).
Arthur Koestler - The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe, New York: Grosset & Dunlap, (1963, c1959). ISBN 0448001594.
Alexandre Koyré (1973) The Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus – Kepler – Borelli, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-0504-1.
Thomas Kuhn (1957). The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought, Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-17100-4.
McMullin, Ernan, ed. (2005). The Church and Galileo. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 0-268-03483-4.
Rosen, Edward (translator) [1939] (2004). Three Copernican Treatises:The Commentariolus of Copernicus; The Letter against Werner; The Narratio Prima of Rheticus, Second Edition, revised, New York, NY: Dover Publications, Inc. ISBN 0486436055.

id="Further_reading"> Map of Royal Prussia (light pink) History - Established October 19, 1466 - Loss of autonomy 1 July 1569 - Annexed August 5, 1772 Royal Prussia (German: ; Polish: ) was a province of the Kingdom of Poland and then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1772. ... Toruń (pronounce: [:tɔruɲ], Kashubian: Torń, German Thorn, see also other names) is a city in northern Poland, on the Vistula river. ... Warmia in 1547 Warmia (Polish: , German: , Latin: Varmia, also historically known as Ermeland) is a region between Pomerania and Masuria in northeastern Poland. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 112th day of the year (113th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 112th day of the year (113th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 112th day of the year (113th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... RIT redirects here. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 112th day of the year (113th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 112th day of the year (113th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 112th day of the year (113th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 112th day of the year (113th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB) is one of the most important and most comprehensive biographical reference works in german language. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 112th day of the year (113th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 264th day of the year (265th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Encarta is a digital multimedia encyclopedia published by Microsoft Corporation. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 264th day of the year (265th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 112th day of the year (113th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Norman Davies, Warsaw (Poland), October 7, 2004 Norman Davies (born June 8, 1939 in Bolton, Lancashire) is an English historian of Welsh descent, noted for his publications on the history of Poland, Europe and the British Isles. ... Owen Gingerich Dr. Owen Jay Gingerich (1930-) was Research Professor of Astronomy and of the History of Science at Harvard University and a senior astronomer emeritus at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. ... David Goodman may refer to: David Goodman, Mother Jones magazine reporter and brother of journalist Amy Goodman. ... Arthur Koestler (September 5, 1905, Budapest â€“ March 3, 1983, London) was a Hungarian polymath who became a naturalized British subject. ... Alexandre KoyrÃ© Alexandre KoyrÃ© (1882/1892, Taganrog - April 28, 1964, Paris) was a French philosopher of Russian origin who wrote on history and the philosophy of science. ... Thomas Samuel Kuhn (July 18, 1922 – June 17, 1996) was an American intellectual who wrote extensively on the history of science and developed several important notions in the philosophy of science. ... 1972 Venezuela stamp featuring a Werner projection map of the world Johann(es) Werner (14 February 1468 in Nuremberg, Germany â€“ May 1522) (also Ioannis Verneri) was a German parish priest in Nuremberg and a mathematician. ...

Contents

Life

Origins

Education

Work

Heliocentrism

The book

Death

Copernican system

Predecessors

Ptolemy

Copernicus

Enduring significance

Quotes

Nationality

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

Contents

Life GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Origins

Education

Work

Heliocentrism

The book

Death

Copernican system

Predecessors

Ptolemy

Copernicus

Enduring significance

Quotes

Nationality

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

Life