The "Nutrition Facts" table indicates the amounts of nutrients which experts recommend you limit or consume in adequate amounts.

Nutrition is the provision, to cells and organisms, of the materials necessary (in the form of food) to support life. Many common health problems can be prevented or alleviated with good nutrition. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 584 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (619 × 635 pixel, file size: 23 KB, MIME type: image/gif) This U.S. Government Nutrition Facts panel illustrates which nutrients experts recommend you limit and which they recommend you consume in adequate amounts. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 584 × 599 pixelsFull resolution (619 × 635 pixel, file size: 23 KB, MIME type: image/gif) This U.S. Government Nutrition Facts panel illustrates which nutrients experts recommend you limit and which they recommend you consume in adequate amounts. ... Domains and Kingdoms Nanobes Acytota Cytota Bacteria Neomura Archaea Eukaryota Bikonta Apusozoa Rhizaria Excavata Archaeplastida Rhodophyta Glaucophyta Plantae Heterokontophyta Haptophyta Cryptophyta Alveolata Unikonta Amoebozoa Opisthokonta Choanozoa Fungi Animalia An ericoid mycorrhizal fungus Life on Earth redirects here. ... This article is about life in general. ...

The diet of an organism refers to what it eats. Dietitians are health professionals who specialize in human nutrition, meal planning, economics, preparation, and so on. They are trained to provide safe, evidence-based dietary advice and management to individuals (in health and disease), as well as to institutions. In nutrition, the diet is the sum of food consumed by a person or other organism. ... A dietitian (sometimes spelled dietician) is an expert in food and nutrition. ... The delivery of modern health care depends on an expanding group of highly trained professionals coming together as an interdisciplinary team. ...

Poor diet can have an injurious impact on health, causing deficiency diseases such as scurvy, beriberi, and kwashiorkor; health-threatening conditions like obesity and metabolic syndrome, and such common chronic systemic diseases as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and osteoporosis. Scurvy (N.Lat. ... Beriberi is a nervous system ailment caused by thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency. ... Metabolic syndrome is a combination of medical disorders that increase ones risk for cardiovascular disease and diabetes. ... Cardiovascular disease refers to the class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels (arteries and veins). ... This article is about the disease that features high blood sugar. ... Osteoporosis is a disease of bone - leading to an increased risk of fracture. ...

Overview

Nutritional science investigates the metabolic and physiological responses of the body to diet. With advances in the fields of molecular biology, biochemistry, and genetics, the study of nutrition is increasingly concerned with metabolism and metabolic pathways, the sequences of biochemical steps through which the many substances of living things change from one form to another. Structure of the coenzyme adenosine triphosphate, a central intermediate in energy metabolism. ... Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. ... Wöhler observes the synthesis of urea. ... This article is about the general scientific term. ...

The human body contains chemical compounds, such as water, carbohydrates (sugar, starch, and fiber), amino acids (in proteins), fatty acids (in lipids), and nucleic acids (DNA/RNA). These compounds, in turn, consist of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and so on. All of these chemical compounds and elements occur in various forms and combinations (e.g. hormones/vitamins, phospholipids, hydroxyapatite), both in the human body and in organisms (e.g. plants, animals) that humans eat. Physical Features of the Human Body The human body is the entire physical structure of a human organism. ... A chemical compound is a chemical substance formed from two or more elements, with a fixed ratio determining the composition. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... Lactose is a disaccharide found in milk. ... Fiber or fibre[1] is a class o f materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces, similar to lengths of thread. ... In chemistry, an amino acid is any molecule that contains both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. ... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... In chemistry, especially biochemistry, a fatty acid is a carboxylic acid (or organic acid), often with a long aliphatic tail (long chains), either saturated or unsaturated. ... Figure 1: Basic lipid structure. ... Highly simplified diagram of a double-stranded nucleic acid. ... The structure of part of a DNA double helix Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is a nucleic acid molecule that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms. ... For other uses, see RNA (disambiguation). ... The periodic table of the chemical elements A chemical element, or element, is a type of atom that is distinguished by its atomic number; that is, by the number of protons in its nucleus. ... For other uses, see Carbon (disambiguation). ... This article is about the chemistry of hydrogen. ... This article is about the chemical element and its most stable form, or dioxygen. ... General Name, symbol, number nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 15, 2, p Appearance colorless gas Standard atomic weight 14. ... General Name, symbol, number phosphorus, P, 15 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 15, 3, p Appearance waxy white/ red/ black/ colorless Standard atomic weight 30. ... For other uses, see Calcium (disambiguation). ... General Name, symbol, number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ... General Name, symbol, number zinc, Zn, 30 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 12, 4, d Appearance bluish pale gray Standard atomic weight 65. ... General Name, symbol, number magnesium, Mg, 12 Chemical series alkaline earth metals Group, period, block 2, 3, s Appearance silvery white solid at room temp Standard atomic weight 24. ... General Name, symbol, number manganese, Mn, 25 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 7, 4, d Appearance silvery metallic Standard atomic weight 54. ... Hormone is also the NATO reporting name for the Soviet/Russian Kamov Ka-25 military helicopter. ... Retinol (Vitamin A) Vitamins are nutrients required in very small amounts for essential metabolic reactions in the body [1]. The term vitamin does not encompass other essential nutrients such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids. ... Two schematic representations of a phospholipid. ... Hydroxylapatite is a naturally occurring form of calcium apatite with the formula Ca5(PO4)3(OH), but is usually written Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 to denote that the crystal unit cell comprises two molecules. ... Physical Features of the Human Body The human body is the entire physical structure of a human organism. ...

The human body consists of elements and compounds ingested, digested, absorbed, and circulated through the bloodstream. Except in the unborn fetus, it is the digestive system which carries out the first steps in feeding the cells of the body. In a typical adult, about seven liters of digestive juices enter the lumen of the digestive tract. They break chemical bonds in ingested molecules and modulate their conformations and energy states. Though some molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream unchanged, digestive processes release them from the matrix of foods in which they occur. Unabsorbed matter is excreted in the feces. For other uses, see Blood (disambiguation). ... what was here was sick and improperly spelled. ... Drawing of the structure of cork as it appeared under the microscope to Robert Hooke from Micrographia which is the origin of the word cell being used to describe the smallest unit of a living organism Cells in culture, stained for keratin (red) and DNA (green) The cell is the... Lumen can mean: Lumen (unit), the SI unit of luminous flux Lumen (anatomy), the cavity or channel within a tubular structure Thylakoid lumen, the inner membrane space of the chloroplast 141 Lumen, an asteroid discovered by the French astronomer Paul Henry in 1875 Lumen (band), an American post-rock band... In chemistry, a chemical bond is the force which holds together atoms in molecules or crystals. ... Conformation generally means structural arrangement. ... Horse feces Feces, faeces, or fæces (see spelling differences) is a waste product from an animals digestive tract expelled through the anus (or cloaca) during defecation. ...

Studies of nutritional status must take into account the state of the body before and after experiments, as well as the chemical composition of the diet and the products of excretion. Comparing the food to the waste can help determine the specific compounds and elements absorbed in the body. Their effects may only be discernible after an extended period of time, during which all food and waste must be analyzed. The number of variables involved in such experiments is high, making nutritional studies time-consuming and expensive, which explains why the science of human nutrition is still slowly evolving. A chemical substance is any material substance used in or obtained by a process in chemistry: A chemical compound is a substance consisting of two or more chemical elements that are chemically combined in fixed proportions. ... In computer science and mathematics, a variable is a symbol denoting a quantity or symbolic representation. ... In the scientific method, an experiment (Latin: ex- periri, of (or from) trying) is a set of observations performed in the context of solving a particular problem or question, to retain or falsify a hypothesis or research concerning phenomena. ...

In general, eating a wide variety of fresh, whole (unprocessed), foods has proven favourable compared to monotonous diets based on processed foods. In particular, the consumption of whole plant foods slows digestion and provides higher amounts, and a more favourable balance, of essential nutrients per Calorie, resulting in better management of cell growth, maintenance, and mitosis (cell division), as well as better regulation of appetite and blood sugar. Regularly scheduled meals (every few hours) have also proven more wholesome than infrequent, haphazard ones. A calorie refers to a unit of energy. ... Mitosis divides genetic information during cell division. ...

Nutrients

Main article: Nutrient

There are seven major classes of nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, fiber, minerals, proteins, vitamins, and water. A nutrient is a substance used in an organisms metabolism which must be taken in from the environment. ... Carbohydrates (literally hydrates of carbon) are chemical compounds that act as the primary biological means of storing or consuming energy, other forms being fat and protein. ... Fats is the plural for fat, a generic term for a class of lipids in biochemistry. ... Fiber or fibre[1] is a class o f materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces, similar to lengths of thread. ... Minerals are natural compounds formed through geological processes. ... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... Retinol (Vitamin A) Vitamins are nutrients required in very small amounts for essential metabolic reactions in the body [1]. The term vitamin does not encompass other essential nutrients such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ...

These nutrient classes can be generally grouped into the categories of macronutrients (needed in relatively large amounts), and micronutrients (needed in smaller quantities). The macronutrients are carbohydrates, fats, fiber, proteins and water. The other nutrient classes are micronutrients. This page meets Wikipedias criteria for speedy deletion. ... Micronutrients are essential nutrients only needed by the human body in small quantities for it to fuction normally. ...

The macronutrients (excluding fiber and water) provide energy, which is measured in kilocalories, often called "Calories" and written with a capital C to distinguish them from small calories. Carbohydrates and proteins provide four (4) Calories of energy per gram, while fats provide nine (9) Calories per gram.^[1] Vitamins, minerals, fiber, and water do not provide energy, but are necessary for other reasons. Etymology: French calorie, from Latin calor (heat), from calere (to be warm). ...

Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The nitrogen-containing components of protein, called amino acids, fulfill many roles other than energy metabolism, and when they are used as fuel, getting rid of the nitrogen places a burden on the kidneys. In chemistry, an amino acid is any molecule that contains both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. ...

Other micronutrients not categorized above include antioxidants, essential fatty acids, and phytochemicals. An antioxidant is a chemical that prevents the oxidation of other chemicals. ... Essential fatty acids are fatty acids that are required in the human diet. ... Phytochemicals are sometimes referred to as phytonutrients and these terms are often used interchangeably. ...

Most foods contain a mix of some or all of the nutrient classes. Some nutrients are required on a regular basis, while others are needed less frequently. Poor health can be caused by an imbalance of nutrients, whether an excess or a deficiency.

Carbohydrates

Main article: Carbohydrate

Calories/gram: 4 Lactose is a disaccharide found in milk. ...

Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides by the number of sugar units they contain. Monosaccharides contain 1 sugar unit, disaccharides contain 2, and polysaccharides contain 3 or more. Polysaccharides are often referred to as complex carbohydrates because they are long chains of sugar units, whereas monosaccharides and disaccharides are simple carbohydrates. The difference is important to nutritionists because complex carbohydrates take longer to metabolize since their sugar units are processed one-by-one off the ends of the chains. Simple carbohydrates are metabolized quickly and thus raise blood sugar levels more quickly resulting in rapid increases in blood insulin levels compared to complex carbohydrates.

Fat

Main article: Fat

Calories/gram: 9 For other uses, see FAT. Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water. ...

Fats are composed of fatty acids (long carbon/hydrogen chains) bonded to a glycerol. Fat may be classified as saturated or unsaturated. Saturated fats have all of their carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms, whereas unsaturated fats have some of their carbon atoms double-bonded in place of a hydrogen atom. Generally, saturated fat is solid at room temperature while unsaturated fat is a liquid. Unsaturated fats may be further classified as mono-unsaturated (one double-bond) or poly-unsaturated (many double-bonds). Trans fats are saturated fats which are typically created from unsaturated fat by adding the extra hydrogen atoms in a process called hydrogenation (also called hydrogenated fat).

Fiber

Main article: Dietary fiber

Calories/gram: 0 Dietary fibers are the indigestible portion of plant foods that move food through the digestive system, absorbing water and making defecation easier. ...

Dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose that is indigestible because we do not have enzymes to digest it. Fruits and vegetables are rich in dietary fiber.

Importance of dietary fiber:

• provides bulk to the intestinal contents
• stimulates peristalsis (rhythmic muscular contractions passing along the digestive tract)

Lack of dietary fiber in the diet leads to constipation (failure to pass motions). Peristalsis is the rhythmic contraction of smooth muscles to propel contents through the digestive tract. ... Constipation or irregularity, is a condition of the digestive system where a person (or animal) experiences hard feces that are difficult to egest; it may be extremely painful, and in severe cases (fecal impaction) lead to symptoms of bowel obstruction. ...

Protein

Main article: Protein in nutrition

Calories/gram: 4 Proteins are broken down in the stomach during digestion by enzymes known as proteases into smaller polypeptides to provide amino acids for the organism, including the essential amino acids that the organism cannot biosynthesize itself. ...

Most meats such as chicken contain all the essential amino acids needed for humans.

Protein is composed of amino acids, that are body's structural (muscles, skin, hair etc.) materials. The body requires amino acids to produce new body protein (protein retention) and to replace damaged proteins (maintenance) that are lost in the urine. In animals amino acid requirements are classified in terms of essential (an animal cannot produce them) and non-essential (the animal can produce them from other nitrogen containing compounds) amino acids. Consuming a diet that contains adequate amounts of essential (but also non-essential) amino acids is particularly important for growing animals, who have a particularly high requirement. Dietary sources of protein include meats, eggs, grains, legumes, and dairy products such as milk and cheese. Proteins can be converted into carbohydrates through a process called gluconeogenesis. Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... Meat is animal flesh (mainly muscle tissue) used as food, sometimes with the exception of fish, other seafood, and poultry. ... Roast Chicken Not including 32% bones. ... First, what is an amino acid? Amino Acids are chemical substances that make up protein. ... In chemistry, an amino acid is any molecule that contains both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. ... An essential amino acid or indispensable amino acid is an amino acid that cannot be synthesized de novo by the organism (usually referring to humans), and therefore must be supplied in the diet. ... An essential amino acid for an organism is an amino acid that cannot be synthesized by the organism from other available resources, and therefore must be supplied as part of its diet. ... For other uses, see Meat (disambiguation). ... Chicken egg (left) and quail eggs (right), the types of egg commonly used as food An egg is a body consisting of an ovum surrounded by layers of membranes and an outer casing of some type, which acts to nourish and protect a developing embryo. ... The word grain has several meanings, most being descriptive of a small piece or particle. ... This article is about the fruit of the plants also called legumes. For the plants themselves, see Fabaceae . ... Dairy products are generally defined as foodstuffs produced from milk. ... A glass of cows milk. ... Cheese is a solid food made from the milk of cows, goats, sheep, and other mammals. ... Pyruvic acid Oxaloacetic acid Phosphoenolpyruvate Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate Fructose 6-phosphate Glucose-6-phosphate Glucose Gluconeogenesis is the generation of glucose from non-sugar carbon substrates like pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and amino acids (primarily alanine and glutamine). ...

Minerals

Main article: Dietary mineral

Calories/gram: 0 mccall is cooool Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen which are present in common organic molecules. ...

Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen which are present in common organic molecules. The term "mineral" is archaic, since the intent of the definition is to describe ions, not chemical compounds or actual minerals. Some dietitians recommend that these heavier elements should be supplied by ingesting specific foods (that are enriched in the element(s) of interest), compounds, and sometimes including even minerals, such as calcium carbonate. Sometimes these "minerals" come from natural sources such as ground oyster shells. Sometimes minerals are added to the diet separately from food, such as mineral supplements, the most famous being iodine in "iodized salt." The periodic table of the chemical elements A chemical element, or element, is a type of atom that is distinguished by its atomic number; that is, by the number of protons in its nucleus. ... For other uses, see Carbon (disambiguation). ... This article is about the chemistry of hydrogen. ... General Name, symbol, number nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 15, 2, p Appearance colorless gas Standard atomic weight 14. ... This article is about the chemical element and its most stable form, or dioxygen. ... Organic chemistry is a specific discipline within chemistry which involves the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of chemical compounds consisting primarily of carbon and hydrogen, which may contain any number of other elements, including nitrogen, oxygen, the halogens as... Look up chemical compound in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For other uses, see Mineral (disambiguation). ... Calcium carbonate is a chemical compound, with the chemical formula CaCO3. ... For other uses, see Oyster (disambiguation). ... Iodised salt is ordinary table salt mixed with a tiny amount of iodine salts, so that it prevents disease of the thyroid gland. ...

Macrominerals

A variety of elements are required to support the biochemical processes, many play a role as electrolytes or in a structural role.^[2] In Human nutrition, the dietary bulk "mineral elements" (RDA > 200 mg/day) are in alphabetical order (parenthetical comments on folk medicine perspective): An electrolyte is any substance containing free ions that behaves as an electrically conductive medium. ... Nutrition is interpreted as the study of the organic process by which an organism assimilates and uses food and liquids for normal functioning, growth and maintenance and to maintain the balance between health and disease. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Daily values. ...

• Calcium (for muscle and digestive system health, builds bone, neutralizes acidity, clears toxins, helps blood stream)
• Chloride
• Magnesium required for processing ATP and related reactions (health, builds bone, causes strong peristalsis, increases flexibility, increases alkalinity)
• Phosphorus required component of bones (see apatite) and energy processing and many other functions (bone mineralization)^[3]
• Potassium required electrolyte (heart and nerves health)
• Sodium electrolyte
• Sulfur for three essential amino acids and many proteins and cofactors (skin, hair, nails, liver, and pancreas health)

Trace minerals

A variety of elements are required in trace amounts, unusually because they play a role in catalysis in enzymes.^[4] Some trace mineral elements (RDA < 200 mg/day) are (alphabetical order): For other uses, see Calcium (disambiguation). ... The chloride ion is formed when the element chlorine picks up one electron to form an anion (negatively-charged ion) Cl−. The salts of hydrochloric acid HCl contain chloride ions and can also be called chlorides. ... General Name, symbol, number magnesium, Mg, 12 Chemical series alkaline earth metals Group, period, block 2, 3, s Appearance silvery white solid at room temp Standard atomic weight 24. ... General Name, symbol, number phosphorus, P, 15 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 15, 3, p Appearance waxy white/ red/ black/ colorless Standard atomic weight 30. ... Apatite is a group of phosphate minerals, usually referring to hydroxylapatite, fluorapatite, and chlorapatite, named for high concentrations of OH-, F-, or Cl- ions, respectively, in the crystal. ... General Name, symbol, number potassium, K, 19 Chemical series alkali metals Group, period, block 1, 4, s Appearance silvery white Standard atomic weight 39. ... An electrolyte is any substance containing free ions that behaves as an electrically conductive medium. ... For sodium in the diet, see Salt. ... This article is about the chemical element. ... Catalyst redirects here. ... Neuraminidase ribbon diagram An enzyme (in Greek en = in and zyme = blend) is a protein, or protein complex, that catalyzes a chemical reaction and also controls the 3D orientation of the catalyzed substrates. ...

• Cobalt required for biosynthesis of vitamin B12 family of coenzymes
• Copper required component of many redox enzymes, including cytochrome c oxidase
• Chromium required for sugar metabolism
• Iodine required for the biosynthesis of thyroxin
• Iron required for many proteins and enzymes, notably hemoglobin
• Manganese (processing of oxygen)
• Molybdenum required for xanthine oxidase and related oxidases
• Nickel present in urease
• Selenium reqiured for peroxidase (antioxidant proteins)
• Vanadium (There is no established RDA for vanadium. No specific biochemical function has been identified for it in humans, although vanadium is found in lower organisms.)
• Zinc required for several enzymes such as carboxypeptidase, liver alcohol dehydrogenase, carbonic anhydrase. Zinc is pervasive.

Iodine is required in larger quantities than the other trace minerals in this list and is sometimes classified with the bulk minerals. Sodium is not generally found in dietary supplements, despite being needed in large quantities, because the ion is very common in food. For other uses, see Cobalt (disambiguation). ... Cobalamin or vitamin B12 is a chemical compound that is also known as cyanocobalamine. ... Coenzyme A Coenzymes are small organic non-protein molecules that carry chemical groups between enzymes. ... For other uses, see Copper (disambiguation). ... Cytochrome c oxidase The enzyme cytochrome c oxidase (PDB 2OCC, EC 1. ... REDIRECT [[ Insert text]]EWWWWWWWWWWWWW YO General Name, symbol, number chromium, Cr, 24 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 6, 4, d Appearance silvery metallic Standard atomic weight 51. ... For other uses, see Iodine (disambiguation). ... Thyroxine, or 3:5,3:5 tetra­iodothyronine (often abbreviated as T4) is the major hormone secreted by the follicular cells of the thyroid gland. ... General Name, symbol, number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ... Structure of hemoglobin. ... General Name, symbol, number manganese, Mn, 25 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 7, 4, d Appearance silvery metallic Standard atomic weight 54. ... General Name, Symbol, Number molybdenum, Mo, 42 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 6, 5, d Appearance gray metallic Standard atomic weight 95. ... Xanthine Oxidase The enzyme xanthine oxidase, or XO, (bovine milk enzyme is PDB 1FIQ, EC 1. ... For other uses, see Nickel (disambiguation). ... Helicobacter Pylori Urease drawn from PDB 1E9Z. Urease (EC 3. ... For other uses, see Selenium (disambiguation). ... Glutathione Peroxidase 1 A peroxidase (eg. ... General Name, symbol, number vanadium, V, 23 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 5, 4, d Appearance silver-grey metal Standard atomic weight 50. ... General Name, symbol, number zinc, Zn, 30 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 12, 4, d Appearance bluish pale gray Standard atomic weight 65. ... Carboxypeptidase is an enzyme that hydrolyzes the first peptide or amide bond at the carboxyl or C-terminal end of proteins and peptides. ... Alcohol Dehydrogenase Alcohol dehydrogenases are a group of dehydrogenase enzymes that occur in many organisms and facilitate the interconversion between alcohols and aldehydes or ketones. ... Carbonic anhydrase (carbonate dehydratase) is a family of metalloenzymes (enzymes that contain one or more metal atoms as a functional component of the enzyme) that catalyze the rapid interconversion of carbon dioxide and water into carbonic acid, protons, and bicarbonate ions. ...

Vitamins

Main article: Vitamin

Calories/gram: 0 Retinol (one vitamer of Vitamin A) A vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism. ...

Mineral and/or vitamin deficiency or excess may yield symptoms of diminishing health such as goitre, scurvy, osteoporosis, weak immune system, disorders of cell metabolism, certain forms of cancer, symptoms of premature aging, and poor psychological health (including eating disorders), among many others.^[5] mccall is cooool Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen which are present in common organic molecules. ... Retinol (one vitamer of Vitamin A) A vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism. ... A goitre (BrE), or goiter (AmE) (Latin struma), also called a bronchocele, is a swelling in the neck (just below Adams apple or larynx) due to an enlarged thyroid gland. ... Scurvy (N.Lat. ... Osteoporosis is a disease of bone - leading to an increased risk of fracture. ... A scanning electron microscope image of a single neutrophil (yellow), engulfing anthrax bacteria (orange). ... Structure of the coenzyme adenosine triphosphate, a central intermediate in energy metabolism. ... Ageing or aging is the process of getting older. ... Psychological science redirects here. ... Eating disorders are a group of mental disorders that interfere with normal food consumption. ...

As of 2005, twelve vitamins and about the same number of minerals are recognized as "essential nutrients", meaning that they must be consumed and absorbed - or, in the case of vitamin D, alternatively synthesized via UVB radiation - to prevent deficiency symptoms and death. Certain vitamin-like substances found in foods, such as carnitine, have also been found essential to survival and health, but these are not strictly "essential" to eat because the body can produce them from other compounds. Moreover, thousands of different phytochemicals have recently been discovered in food (particularly in fresh vegetables), which have many known and yet to be explored properties including antioxidant activity (see below). Other essential nutrients include essential amino acids, choline and the essential fatty acids. Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin that contributes to the maintenance of normal levels of calcium and phosphorus in the bloodstream. ... Note: Ultraviolet is also the name of a 1998 UK television miniseries about vampires. ... This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... Phytochemicals are sometimes referred to as phytonutrients and these terms are often used interchangeably. ... Space-filling model of the antioxidant metabolite glutathione. ... An essential amino acid or indispensable amino acid is an amino acid that cannot be synthesized de novo by the organism (usually referring to humans), and therefore must be supplied in the diet. ... Choline is an organic compound, classified as an essential nutrient and usually grouped within the Vitamin B complex. ... Essential fatty acids, or EFAs, are fatty acids that cannot be constructed within an organism from other components (generally all references are to humans) by any known chemical pathways; and therefore must be obtained from the diet. ...

Water

A manual water pump in China

Main article: Drinking water

Calories/gram: 0 Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2272x1704, 1004 KB) 老式的压水的自来水设施。在一些农村还可以看到。 Shizhao2005年摄于诸暨乡间。 File links The following pages link to this file: Water Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (2272x1704, 1004 KB) 老式的压水的自来水设施。在一些农村还可以看到。 Shizhao2005年摄于诸暨乡间。 File links The following pages link to this file: Water Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera or scanner used to create or digitize it. ... This article is about a mechanical device. ... Tap water Mineral Water Drinking water is water that is intended to be ingested through drinking by humans. ...

About 70% of the non-fat mass of the human body is made of water. To function properly, the body requires between one and seven liters of water per day to avoid dehydration; the precise amount depends on the level of activity, temperature, humidity, and other factors. With physical exertion and heat exposure, water loss will increase and daily fluid needs may increase as well. This article is about modern humans. ... The liter (spelled liter in American English and litre in Commonwealth English) is a unit of volume. ... Look up day in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Dehydration (hypohydration) is the removal of water (hydro in ancient Greek) from an object. ...

It is not clear how much water intake is needed by healthy people, although some experts assert that 8–10 glasses of water (approximately 2 liters) daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration.^[6] The notion that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be traced back to a scientific source.^[7] The effect of water on weight loss and constipation is also still unknown.^[8] Original recommendation for water intake in 1945 by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council read: "An ordinary standard for diverse persons is 1 milliliter for each calorie of food. Most of this quantity is contained in prepared foods."^[9] The latest dietary reference intake report by the United States National Research Council in general recommended (including food sources): 2.7 liters of water total for women and 3.7 liters for men.^[10] Specifically, pregnant and breastfeeding women need additional fluids to stay hydrated. According to the Institute of Medicine—who recommend that, on average, women consume 2.2 litres and men 3.0 litres—this is recommended to be 2.4 litres (approx. 9 cups) for pregnant women and 3 litres (approx. 12.5 cups) for breastfeeding women since an especially large amount of fluid is lost during nursing.^[11]-1... The National Research Council (NRC) of the USA is the working arm of the United States National Academy of Sciences and the United States National Academy of Engineering, carrying out most of the studies done in their names. ... This article is about human pregnancy in biological females. ... Suckling redirects here. ... The Institute of Medicine, a part of the National Academy of Sciences, is an American organization whose purpose is to provide national advice on issues relating to biomedical science, medicine, and health (National Academy of Sciences, n. ...

For those who have healthy kidneys, it is rather difficult to drink too much water, but (especially in warm humid weather and while exercising) it is dangerous to drink too little. People can drink far more water than necessary while exercising, however, putting them at risk of water intoxication, which can be fatal. Water intoxication (also known as hyperhydration or water poisoning) is a potentially fatal disturbance in brain function that results when the normal balance of electrolytes in the body is pushed outside of safe limits, ironically by that which makes up the majority of it - common water. ...

Normally, about 20 percent of water intake comes from food, while the rest comes from drinking water and beverages (caffeinated included). Water is excreted from the body in multiple forms; through urine and feces, through sweating, and by exhalation of water vapor in the breath. For other uses, see Caffeine (disambiguation). ... This article is about the urine of animals generally. ... Horse feces Feces, faeces, or fæces (see spelling differences) is a waste product from an animals digestive tract expelled through the anus (or cloaca) during defecation. ... SWEAT is an OLN/TSN show hosted by Julie Zwillich that aired in 2003-2004. ... Water vapor or water vapour (see spelling differences), also aqueous vapor, is the gas phase of water. ...

Other nutrients

Calories/gram: 0

Other micronutrients include antioxidants, essential fatty acids, and phytochemicals. These substances are generally more recent discoveries which: have not yet been recognized as vitamins; are still under investigation; or contribute to health but are not necessary for life. Phytochemicals may act as antioxidants, but not all phytochemicals are antioxidants.

Antioxidants

Main article: Antioxidant

Antioxidants are recent discovery. As cellular metabolism/energy production requires oxygen, potentially damaging (e.g. mutation causing) compounds known as radical oxygen species or free radicals form as a result. For normal cellular maintenance, growth, and division, these free radicals must be sufficiently neutralized by antioxidant compounds, some produced by the body with adequate precursors (glutathione, Vitamin C in most animals) and those that the body cannot produce may only be obtained through the diet through direct sources (Vitamin C in humans, Vitamin A, Vitamin K) or produced by the body from other compounds (Beta-carotene converted to Vitamin A by the body, Vitamin D synthesized from cholesterol by sunlight). Phytochemicals (Section Below) and their subgroup polyphenols comprise of the majority of antioxidants, some 4,000 known, and therefore there is much overlap. Different antioxidants are now known to function in a cooperative network, e.g. vitamin C can reactivate free radical-containing glutathione or vitamin E by accepting the free radical itself, and so on. Some antioxidants are more effective than others at neutralizing different free radicals. Some cannot neutralize certain free radicals. Some cannot be present in certain areas of free radical development (Vitamin A is fat-soluble and protects fat areas, Vitamin C is water soluble and protects those areas). When interacting with a free radical, some antioxidants produce a different free radical compound that is less dangerous or more dangerous than the previous compound. Having a variety of antioxidants allows any byproducts to be safely dealt with by more efficient antioxidants in neutralizing a free radical's butterfly effect. Space-filling model of the antioxidant metabolite glutathione. ... Structure of the coenzyme adenosine triphosphate, a central intermediate in energy metabolism. ... For linguistic mutation, see Apophony. ... In chemistry free radicals are uncharged atomic or molecular species with unpaired electrons or an otherwise open shell configuration. ... In chemistry a precursor is a compound that participates in the chemical reaction that produces another compound. ... Glutathione (GSH) is a tripeptide. ... This article is about the nutrient. ... The structure of retinol, the most common dietary form of vitamin A Vitamin A is an essential human nutrient. ... Vitamin K1 (phylloquinone). ... Beta-carotene is a form of carotene with β-rings at both ends. ... Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin that contributes to the maintenance of normal levels of calcium and phosphorus in the bloodstream. ... Cholesterol is a sterol (a combination steroid and alcohol). ... Prism splitting light High Resolution Solar Spectrum Sunlight in the broad sense is the total spectrum of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun. ... Glutathione (GSH) is a tripeptide. ... Fat soluble refers to properties of compounds in our bodies that are attracted to and accumulated in fat cells within the body. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... Point attractors in 2D phase space. ...

Essential fatty acids

Main article: Essential fatty acids

Most fatty acids are non-essential, meaning the body can produce them as needed, however, at least two fatty acids are essential and must be consumed in the diet. An appropriate balance of essential fatty acids - omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids - has been discovered to be important for maintaining health. Both of these unique "omega" long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are substrates for a class of eicosanoids known as prostaglandins which function as hormones. The omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) (which can be made in the body from the omega-3 essential fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (LNA), or taken in through marine food sources), serves as building block for series 3 prostaglandins (e.g. weakly-inflammation PGE3). The omega-6 dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) serves as building block for series 1 prostaglandins (e.g. anti-inflammatory PGE1), whereas arachidonic acid (AA) serves as building block for series 2 prostaglandins (e.g. pro-inflammatory PGE 2). Both DGLA and AA are made from the omega-6 linoleic acid (LA) in the body, or can be taken in directly through food. An appropriately balanced intake of omega-3 and omega-6 partly determines the relative production of different prostaglandins, which partly explains the importance of omega-3/omega-6 balance for cardiovascular health. In industrialised societies, people generally consume large amounts of processed vegetable oils that have reduced amounts of essential fatty acids along with an excessive amount of omega-6 relative to omega-3. Essential fatty acids are fatty acids that are required in the human diet. ... Omega-3 fatty acids are polyunsaturated fatty acids found in certain fish tissues, and in vegetable sources such as flax seeds, walnuts, and canola oil. ... Omega-6 fatty acids are fatty acids where the term omega-6 signifies that the first double bond in the carbon backbone of the fatty acid, counting from the end opposite the acid group, occurs in the sixth carbon-carbon bond. ... An unsaturated fat is a fat or fatty acid in which there are one or more double bonds in the fatty acid chain. ... For other uses, see Substrate. ... In biochemistry, eicosanoids are a class of oxygenated hydrophobic hormones that largely function as paracrine mediators. ... A prostaglandin is any member of a group of lipid compounds that are derived from fatty acids and have important functions in the animal body. ... Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA or also icosapentaenoic acid) is an omega-3 fatty acid. ... Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is a polyunsaturated omega-3 fatty acid. ... Inflammation is the first response of the immune system to infection or irritation and may be referred to as the innate cascade. ... Linoleic acid (LA) is an unsaturated omega-6 fatty acid. ...

The rate of conversions of omega-6 DGLA to AA largely determines the production of the respective prostaglandins PGE1 and PGE2. Omega-3 EPA prevents AA from being released from membranes, thereby skewing prostaglandin balance away from pro-inflammatory PGE2 made from AA toward anti-inflammatory PGE1 made from DGLA. Moreover, the conversion (desaturation) of DGLA to AA is controlled by the enzyme delta-5-desaturase, which in turn is controlled by hormones such as insulin (up-regulation) and glucagon (down-regulation). Because different types and amounts of food eaten/absorbed affect insulin, glucagon and other hormones to varying degrees, not only the amount of omega-3 versus omega-6 eaten but also the general composition of the diet therefore determine health implications in relation to essential fatty acids, inflammation (e.g. immune function) and mitosis (i.e. cell division). A Desaturase is an enzyme which removes two hydrogen atoms from an organic compound, creating a carbon/carbon double bond. ... Not to be confused with inulin. ... Glucagon ball and stick model A microscopic image stained for glucagon. ... An abscess on the skin, showing the redness and swelling characteristic of inflammation. ... Mitosis divides genetic information during cell division. ...

Phytochemicals

Main article: Phytochemical

Blackberries are a source of polyphenol antioxidants

A growing area of interest is the effect upon human health of trace chemicals, collectively called phytochemicals. These nutrients are typically found in edible plants, especially colorful fruits and vegetables, but also other organisms including seafood, algae, and fungi. The effects of phytochemicals increasingly survive rigorous testing by prominent health organizations. One of the principal classes of phytochemicals are polyphenol antioxidants, chemicals which are known to provide certain health benefits to the cardiovascular system and immune system. These chemicals are known to down-regulate the formation of reactive oxygen species, key chemicals in cardiovascular disease. Phytochemicals are plant or fruit derived chemical compounds. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1024x841, 267 KB)Blackberry fruits Taken by User:Fir0002 File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1024x841, 267 KB)Blackberry fruits Taken by User:Fir0002 File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... This article is about the fruit. ... Molecular structure of flavone, a common polyphenol antioxidant A polyphenol antioxidant is a member of a class of multi-phenolic compounds known for their role in down-regulating free radical formation in mammals . ... Phytochemicals are sometimes referred to as phytonutrients and these terms are often used interchangeably. ... Molecular structure of apigenin, a polyphenol antioxidant A polyphenol antioxidant is a type of antioxidant containing a polyphenolic substructure. ... The circulatory system or cardiovascular system is the organ system which circulates blood around the body of most animals. ... A scanning electron microscope image of a single neutrophil (yellow), engulfing anthrax bacteria (orange). ... Reactive oxygen species (ROS) include oxygen ions, free radicals and peroxides both inorganic and organic. ... Cardiovascular disease refers to the class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels (arteries and veins). ...

Perhaps the most rigorously tested phytochemical is zeaxanthin, a yellow-pigmented carotenoid present in many yellow and orange fruits and vegetables. Repeated studies have shown a strong correlation between ingestion of zeaxanthin and the prevention and treatment of age-related macular degeneration (AMD).^[12] Less rigorous studies have proposed a correlation between zeaxanthin intake and cataracts.^[13] A second carotenoid, lutein, has also been shown to lower the risk of contracting AMD. Both compounds have been observed to collect in the retina when ingested orally, and they serve to protect the rods and cones against the destructive effects of light. Zeaxanthin is one of the two carotenoids contained within the retina. ... This article or section should be merged with macular degeneration Treatment Those with AMD can sometimes benefit from the treatment tested in the Age-Related Eye Disease Study. ... Cataract is also used to mean a waterfall or where the flow of a river changes dramatically. ...

Another caretenoid, beta-cryptoxanthin, appears to protect against chronic joint inflammatory diseases, such as arthritis. While the association between serum blood levels of beta-cryptoxanthin and substantially decreased joint disease has been established, neither a convincing mechanism for such protection nor a cause-and-effect have been rigorously studied.^[14] Similarly, a red phytochemical, lycopene, has substantial credible evidence of negative association with development of prostate cancer. Cryptoxanthin is a natural carotenoid pigment. ... Arthritis (from Greek arthro-, joint + -itis, inflammation; plural: arthritides) is a group of conditions where there is damage caused to the joints of the body. ... Lycopene is a bright red carotenoid pigment, a phytochemical found in tomatoes and other red fruits. ...

The correlations between the ingestion of some phytochemicals and the prevention of disease are, in some cases, enormous in magnitude.

Even when the evidence is obtained, translating it to practical dietary advice can be difficult and counter-intuitive. Lutein, for example, occurs in many yellow and orange fruits and vegetables and protects the eyes against various diseases. However, it does not protect the eye nearly as well as zeaxanthin, and the presence of lutein in the retina will prevent zeaxanthin uptake. Additionally, evidence has shown that the lutein present in egg yolk is more readily absorbed than the lutein from vegetable sources, possibly because of fat solubility.^[15] At the most basic level, the question "should you eat eggs?" is complex to the point of dismay, including misperceptions about the health effects of cholesterol in egg yolk, and its saturated fat content.

As another example, lycopene is prevalent in tomatoes (and actually is the chemical that gives tomatoes their red color). It is more highly concentrated, however, in processed tomato products such as commercial pasta sauce, or tomato soup, than in fresh "healthy" tomatoes. Yet, such sauces tend to have high amounts of salt, sugar, other substances a person may wish or even need to avoid. Tomato soup is a soup made from tomatoes. ...

The following table presents phytochemical groups and common sources, arranged by family: