Ornithology (from Greek: ορνισ, ornis, "bird"; and λόγος, logos, "knowledge") is the branch of zoology concerned with the study of birds. Several aspects of the study of ornithology differ from closely related disciplines, possibly due to the high visibility and the aesthetic appeal of birds. Most marked among these is the extent of field studies undertaken by amateur volunteers working within the parameters of strict scientific methodology. Ornithology is a jazz composition by alto saxophonist Charlie Parker and trumpeter Benny Harris. ... Zoology (from Greek: ζῴον, zoion, animal; and λόγος, logos, knowledge) is the biological discipline which involves the study of animals. ... For other uses, see Bird (disambiguation). ...

See also Timeline of ornithology

The following constitutes a timeline of ornithology events: 1500-800 BC - The Vedas mention the habit of brood parasitism in the Koel (Eudynamys scolopacea). ...

Early ornithology

Birds have interested humans since very early times, and stone age drawings of birds are perhaps the oldest indications. Birds were perhaps an important food source for humans and bones of as many as 80 species have been found in excavations of early settlements. ^[1] Stone Age fishing hook. ...

The hunting of birds would have required considerable knowledge of their habits. The need for incubation of eggs was known and the practice of artificial incubation of eggs was followed from very early times in China (246 BC) and Egypt (at least 400 BC).^[2] The Egyptians also showed a great deal of knowledge on birds with their use of bird symbols in hieroglyphs, many of which, though stylized are still recognizable. Poultry farming and falconry were both in practice from early times in many parts of the world. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Flying a Saker Falcon Falconry or hawking is an art or sport which involves the use of trained raptors (birds of prey) to hunt or pursue game for humans. ...

Native cultures in all parts of the world included rich vocabularies for the identification of birds and their use in culture. This native knowledge of birds is still of importance today and especially for its special relevance in conservation. Most of this information is passed on through oral traditions. (See Ethno-ornithology) Ethnoornithology (also ethno-ornithology) is the study of the relationship between people and birds (from ethno- - relating to people and culture - and ornithology - the study of birds). ...

Some of these early written records are of ornithological interest and they sometimes provide information on past distributions of many species. For instance Xenophon records the abundance of the Ostrich in Assyria (Anabasis, i. 5). Today the species is restricted to Africa. The Vedas (1500-800 BC) mention the habit of brood parasitism in the Asian Koel (Eudynamys scolopacea).^[3] The early art of China, Japan, Persia and India also show a number of species of birds, some of them illustrated to great accuracy. David Lack wrote in his Review of Fine Bird Books, 1700-1900 (reprinted in Enjoying Ornithology, 1965): Xenophon, Greek historian Xenophon (In Greek , ca. ... // Binomial name Carolus Linnaeus, 1758 The present-day distribution of Ostriches. ... For other uses, see Assyria (disambiguation). ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... Veda redirects here. ... A Common Cuckoo being raised by a Reed Warbler. ... Binomial name Eudynamis scolopacea Linnaeus, 1758 The Asian Koel (Eudynamis scolopacea), or Common Koel, is a member of the cuckoo order of birds, the Cuculiformes, which also includes the roadrunners, the anis, and the Hoatzin. ... David Lambert Lack (July 16, 1910 - March 12, 1973) was a British ornithologist and biologist. ...

It must be remembered that, while [John] Gould himself was a skilled craftsman, many of the books that bear his name were illustrated by others, including H. C. Richter, Edward Lear and Joseph Wolf. Indeed, some would regard the last-named as the greatest bird illustrator, particularly in his birds of prey, which combine accuracy with power. One must, I think, qualify this statement by 'of the western world', because the paintings from India and China surpass anything that the West has yet produced, and only these, perhaps, come in the category of great art. John Gould John Gould (14 September 1804 – 3 February 1881) was an English ornithologist. ... Henry Constantine Richter (1821 - 1902) was a zoological illustrator. ... Edward Lear, 1812-1888 Eagle Owl, Edward Lear, 1837 Another Edward Lear owl, in his more familiar style Edward Lear (12 May 1812 – 29 January 1888) was an artist, illustrator and writer known for his nonsensical poetry and his limericks, a form which he popularised. ... Joseph Wolf (January 22, 1820 - April 20, 1899) was a German artist. ...

Aristotle in 350 BC in his Historia Animalium^[4] noted the habit of bird migration, moulting, egg laying and life spans. He however also introduced several incorrect concepts, and although he noted that cranes traveled from the steppes of Scythia to the marshes at the headwaters of the Nile, he attributed the disappearance of swallows in winter to hibernation. This belief became so well established that the eminent nineteenth-century American ornithologist, Dr. Elliott Coues, listed in 1878 the titles of no less than 182 papers dealing with the hibernation of swallows.^[5] For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation). ... Flock of Barnacle Geese during autumn migration Bird migration refers to the regular seasonal journeys of varying distances undertaken by many species of birds. ... Approximate extent of Scythia and Sarmatia in the 1st century BC (the orange background shows the spread of Eastern Iranian languages, among them Scytho-Sarmatian). ... The Nile (Arabic: , transliteration: , Ancient Egyptian iteru, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing river in Africa, generally regarded as the longest river in the world. ... Elliott Coues Elliott Coues (September 9, 1842 - December 25, 1899) was an American army surgeon, historian, ornithologist and author. ...

The references to birds in early writings are numerous both in prose and poetry.^[6] In the 12th century, Bishop Giraldus Cambrensis (Gerald of Wales) published a book Topographia Hiberniae in which he noted the folk belief that the Barnacle Goose was born from Goose barnacles. Binomial name Branta leucopsis (Bechstein, 1803) The Barnacle Goose (Branta leucopsis) belongs to the genus Branta of black geese, which contains species with largely black plumage, distinguishing them from the grey Anser species. ... Binomial name Pollicipes polymerus Ref: ITIS 89755 The Gooseneck Barnacle (Pollicipes polymerus) is a species of filter-feeding crustacean that lives attached to hard surfaces of rocks and flotsam in the ocean intertidal zone. ...

The origins of falconry have been traced to Mesopotamia and the earliest record comes from the reign of Sargon II (722–705 BC), however it appears to have made its entry to Europe only after AD 400, brought in from the East after invasions by the Huns and Allans. Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor of Hohenstaufen (1194 – 1250) learnt about Arabian falconry during wars in the region and he obtained an Arabic treatise on falconry by Moamyn. This was translated into Latin and he conducted experiments on birds. He determined by sealing the eyes of vultures and placing food nearby to conclude that they can only find food by sight and not by smell. He also found methods to keep and train falcons. The studies he undertook were published in 1240 after nearly 30 years of experience in falconry as De Arte Venandi cum Avibus (The Art of Hunting with Birds).^[7] Mesopotamia was a cradle of civilization geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq. ... Frederick II (December 26, 1194 – December 13, 1250), of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, was a pretender to the title of King of the Romans from 1212 and unopposed holder of that monarchy from 1215. ...

Belon's comparison of birds and humans in Book of Birds, 1555

Ulysse Aldrovandi

Cover of Aldrovandi's Ornithology, 1599

Early German and French scholars also studied the works of Aristotle and made new studies of birds. The major works included those by Guillaume Rondelet describing his personal observations in the Mediterranean and Pierre Belon who described the fishes and birds that he had met with in France and the Levant. Belon's Book of Birds (1555) is a folio volume with descriptions of some two hundred species. His comparison of the skeleton of humans and birds is considered remarkable.^[8] Konrad Gesner wrote the Vogelbuch and Icones avium omnium around 1557. Like Gesner, Ulisse Aldrovandi, an encyclopedic naturalist began a 14-volume natural history with three volumes on birds, entitled ornithologiae hoc est de avibus historiae libri XII which was published from 1599 to 1603. Aldrovandi showed great interest in plants and animals and his works include 3000 drawings of fruits, flowers, plants and animals and they were documented in 363 volumes. His Ornithology alone covers 2000 pages and in it he covers for instance chickens and poultry techniques extensively.^[9][10]William Turner's Historia Avium ("History of Birds"), published at Cologne in 1544, was another early ornithological work. He notes that the kite in cities of England would snatch the meat out of the hands of children. In his day the osprey was better known to Englishmen than they liked, for it emptied their fishponds; anglers used to mix their bait with its fat. Turner's work was written in a very different tone and quite unlike the writings of Gilbert White that were made in a more tranquil era.^[8] Image File history File links Size of this preview: 764 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1164 × 914 pixel, file size: 144 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 764 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1164 × 914 pixel, file size: 144 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 405 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (800 × 1185 pixels, file size: 551 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 405 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (800 × 1185 pixels, file size: 551 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Ulisse Aldrovandi. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 392 × 599 pixelsFull resolution‎ (800 × 1,223 pixels, file size: 509 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 392 × 599 pixelsFull resolution‎ (800 × 1,223 pixels, file size: 509 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Guillaume Rondelet Guillaume Rondelet (1507-1566) was professor of medicine at the university of Montpellier in southern France. ... Pierre Belon (1517‑1564) was a French naturalist. ... Conrad von Gesner (Konrad von Gesner, Conrad Gessner, Conradus Gesnerus) (26 March 1516-13 December 1565) was a Swiss naturalist. ... Ulisse Aldrovandi Ulisse Aldrovandi (11 September 1522 - 10 November 1605) was an Italian naturalist, the moving force behind Bolognas botanical garden, one of the first in Europe. ... William Turner (c. ... For other uses, see Cologne (disambiguation). ... Gilbert White (July 18, 1720 – June 26, 1793) was a pioneering naturalist and ornithologist. ...

In the 17th century Francis Willughby (1635-1672) and John Ray (1627-1705) came up with the first major system of bird classification that was based on function and morphology rather than on form or behavior. Willughby's Ornithologiae libri tres (1676) completed by John Ray is considered to mark the beginning of scientific ornithology. Ray also worked on Ornithologia which was then published posthumously in 1713 as Synopsis methodica avium et piscium.^[11] The earliest list of British birds, Pinax Rerum Naturalium Britannicarum was written by Christopher Merrett in 1667, however it was not considered of value by many including John Ray.^[12] Francis Willughby (November 22, 1635 - July 3, 1672) was an English ornithologist and ichthyologist. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Christopher Merret was a British winemaker who in 1662 presented the Royal Society with a paper called The ordering of wines in which he detailed the secondary fermentation of wine in order to create sparkling wine. ...

Several ornithological works were also started in the late 1700s in France through the works of Mathurin Jacques Brisson (1723-1806) and Comte de Buffon (1707-1788). Brisson produced a six-volume work Ornithologie in 1760 and Buffon's include nine volumes on birds Histoire naturelle des oiseaux (1770-1785) as volumes 16 to 24 of his work on science Histoire naturelle générale et particulière (1749-1804). Coenraad Jacob Temminck (1778 - 1858) sponsored François Le Vaillant [1753-1824] to collect in Africa and this resulted in Le Vaillant's six-volume Histoire naturelle des oiseaux d'Afrique (1796-1808). Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot (1748-1831) spent ten years studying North American birds and wrote the Histoire naturelle des oiseaux de l'Amerique septentrionale (1807-1808?). Vieillot pioneered in the use of life-histories and habits in classification.^[13] Mathurin Jacques Brisson (April 30, 1723 - June 23, 1806) was a French zoologist and natural philosopher. ... Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, by François-Hubert Drouais (1727-1775). ... Coenraad Jacob Temminck (March 31, 1778 - January 30, 1858) was a Dutch aristocrat and zoologist. ... François Levaillant François Le Vaillant (1753 - November 22, 1824) was a French explorer, collector and ornithologist. ... Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot (May 10, 1748 - 1831) was a French ornithologist. ...

Scientific ornithology

See also Ornithology journals, Ornithologists

Early bird study focused on collectibles such as eggs and nests

It was not until the Victorian era, with the emergence of the gun, the concept of natural history and the collection of natural objects such as bird eggs and skins that ornithology as a specialized science emerged.^[14] This specialization led to the formation in Britain of the British Ornithologists' Union in 1858. In 1859 the members founded its journal The Ibis. The sudden spurt in ornithology was also due in part to colonization. A hundred years later, in 1959, R. E. Moreau noted that ornithology in this period was preoccupied with the geographical distributions of various species of birds.^[15] The following is a list of journals and magazines relating to birding and ornithology, arranged by place of publication. ... List of famous ornithologists A-D Humayun Abdulali (India) Horace Alexander (UK, later USA) Wilfred Backhouse Alexander (UK) Salim Ali (India) Joel Asaph Allen (USA) Dean Amadon (USA) Jean Victoire Audouin (France) John James Audubon (USA) Jean Francois Emmanuel Baillon Spencer Fullerton Baird (USA) Thomas Bewick (UK) Biswamoy Biswas (India... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 472 × 600 pixelsFull resolution‎ (598 × 760 pixels, file size: 86 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 472 × 600 pixelsFull resolution‎ (598 × 760 pixels, file size: 86 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... The British Ornithologists Union (BOU) aims to encourage the study of birds (ornithology) in Britain, Europe and throughout the world, in order to understand their biology and to aid their conservation. ... Reginald Ernest Moreau, (1897 – 1970), was an English ornithologist. ...

No doubt the preoccupation with widely extended geographical ornithology, was fostered by the immensity of the areas over which British rule or influence stretched during the 19th century and for some time afterwards.^[16]

A mounted specimen of a Red-footed Falcon.

The bird collectors of the Victorian era observed the variations in bird forms and habits across geographic regions, noting geographic specialties and variations in species that were widespread. The collections of museums and private collectors grew with contributions from various parts of the world. The naming of species with binomials and the organization of birds into groups based on their similarities became the main work of museum specialists. The variations in widespread birds across geographical region caused the introduction of trinomial names. Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... Binomial name Falco vespertinus Linnaeus, 1766 The Red-footed Falcon (Falco vespertinus) is a bird of prey. ...

The search for patterns in the variations of birds was attempted by many. The Galapagos finches were especially influential in the development of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. His contemporary Alfred Russel Wallace also noted these variations and the geographical separations between different forms leading to the study of biogeography. Wallace was influenced by the work of Philip Lutley Sclater on the distribution patterns of birds.^[17] NASA Satellite photo of the Galápagos archipelago. ... For other meanings, see Finch (disambiguation). ... For other people of the same surname, and places and things named after Charles Darwin, see Darwin. ... For the Cornish painter, see Alfred Wallis. ... Biogeography is the science which deals with patterns of species distribution and the processes that result in such patterns. ... Philip Lutley Sclater (November 4, 1829 - June 27, 1913) was an English lawyer and zoologist. ...

For Darwin, the problem was how species arose from a common ancestor. He however did not attempt to find rules for delineation of species. The problem of delineating species, the species problem, was tackled by the ornithologist Ernst Mayr. The species problem is a mixture of difficult, related questions that often come up when biologists identify species and when they define the word species. One common but sometimes difficult question is how best to decide just which particular species an organism belongs to. ... Ernst Mayr Ernst Walter Mayr (July 5, 1904, Kempten, Germany – February 3, 2005, Bedford, Massachusetts U.S.), was one of the 20th centurys leading evolutionary biologists. ...

While the ideas of species, their identities and geographic distribution began to be developed, the focus gradually shifted to the study of the living bird, or studies of the life history of birds.^[15] The study of birds in their habitats was particularly advanced in Germany and as early as 1903, had established bird ringing stations. By the 1920s the Journal für Ornithologie included many papers on the behavior, ecology, anatomy and physiology, many written by Erwin Stresemann. Ornithology in the United States was also restricted to the study of variations, species and geographic distributions, until it was influenced by Stresemann's student Ernst Mayr.^[18] In Britain, some of the earliest ornithological works that used the word ecology appeared in 1915.^[19] The Ibis however resisted the introduction of these new methods of study and it was not until 1943 that any paper on ecology appeared.^[15] The work of David Lack on population ecology was pioneering. The new rigour and quantitative approaches being used ornithology were not acceptable to many. For instance, Claud Ticehurst wrote: Bird ringing (also known as bird banding) is an aid to studying wild birds, by attaching a small individually numbered metal or plastic ring to their legs or wings, so that various aspects of the birds life can be studied by the ability to re-find the same individual... Erwin Stresemann (November 22, 1889 - November 20, 1972) was a German ornithologist. ... David Lambert Lack (July 16, 1910 - March 12, 1973) was a British ornithologist and biologist. ... Claud Buchanan Ticehurst (1881–February 17, 1941) was a British ornithologist. ...

Sometimes it seems that elaborate plans and statistics are made to prove what is commonplace knowledge to the mere collector, such as that hunting parties often travel more or less in circles.^[15]

David Lack's studies on population ecology included the mechanism involved in the regulation of population including the evolution of optimal clutch sizes. He concluded that population was regulated primarily by density-dependent controls. This however was based on the underlying paradigm of group selection. Lack also pioneered the use of many new tools for research including the idea of using radar to study bird migration. In evolutionary biology, group selection refers to the idea that alleles can become fixed or spread in a population because of the benefits they bestow on groups, regardless of the fitness of individuals within that group. ...

The study of imprinting behaviour in ducks and geese by Konrad Lorenz and the studies of instinct in Herring Gulls by Nicolaas Tinbergen, led to the establishment of the field of ethology. Lorenz being followed by his imprinted geese Konrad Zacharias Lorenz (November 7, 1903 in Vienna – February 27, 1989 in Vienna) was an Austrian zoologist, animal psychologist, and ornithologist. ... Binomial name Pontoppidan, 1763 The Herring Gull, Larus argentatus, is a large gull which breeds across North America, Europe and Asia. ... Nikolaas Tinbergen (April 15, 1907 - December 21, 1988) was a noted ethologist and ornithologist who shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Karl Von Frisch and Konrad Lorenz for their discoveries concerning organization and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

The growth of genetics and the rise of molecular biology saw the new gene-centered view of evolution and the observations on behaviour and life-history were studied and interpreted differently. Birds became models to test hypotheses that could be postulated based on the theory. The gene-centered view of evolution, gene selection theory or selfish gene theory holds that natural selection acts through differential survival of competing genes, increasing the frequency of those alleles whose phenotypic effects successfully promote their own propagation. ...

The new tools of molecular-biology also led to new approaches to the study of bird systematics. The new molecular phylogenetics approaches were applied to study the evolutionary relationships of birds far more objectively than the older systematics that relied on subjective judgements in the choice of morphological characteristics to use in the grouping of birds at different levels. Molecular phylogeny is the use of the structure of molecules to gain information on an organisms evolutionary relationships. ...

The patterns of biodiversity also became a topic interest. The relationship of the number of species to the area and its application in the study of Island biogeography was pioneered by E. O. Wilson and Robert MacArthur. This area of research led to the development of the field of landscape ecology. Rainforests are among the most biodiverse ecosystems on earth Biodiversity is the variation of taxonomic life forms within a given ecosystem, biome or for the entire Earth. ... The study of island biogeography is a field within biogeography that attempts to establish and explain the factors that affect the species diversity of a particular community. ... Edward Osborne Wilson (b. ... Robert Helmer MacArthur (April 7, 1930 – November 1, 1972) was an American ecologist who made a major impact on many areas of community and population ecology. ... Landscape ecology is a sub-discipline of ecology and geography that address how spatial variation in the landscape affects ecological processes such as the distribution and flow of energy, materials and individuals in the environment (which, in turn, may influence the distribution of landscape elements themselves such as hedgerows). ...

Popular ornithology

The interest in bird study grew in popularity in many parts of the world and it was realized that there was a possibility for amateurs to contribute to professional biology. As early as 1916, Julian Huxley wrote a two part article in the Auk, noting the tensions between amateurs and professionals and suggesting the possibility that the "vast army of bird-lovers and bird-watchers could begin providing the data scientists needed to address the fundamental problems of biology."^[20][21] Sir Julian Sorell Huxley, FRS (June 22, 1887 – February 14, 1975) was a English biologist, author, Humanist and internationalist, known for his popularisations of science in books and lectures. ...

The rise of field-guides for the identification of birds was a major innovation. The early guides were large and cumbersome and were mainly focussed on identifying specimens in the hand. The earliest of the new generation of field guides was prepared by Florence Merriam, sister of Clinton Hart Merriam, the mammalogist. This was published in 1887 in a series Hints to Audubon Workers:Fifty Birds and How to Know Them in Grinnell's Audubon Magazine.^[18] Florence Augusta Merriam Bailey (August 8, 1863 - September 22, 1948) was an American ornithologist and nature writer. ... Clinton Hart Merriam (December 5, 1855-March 19, 1942) was an American zoologist and ornithologist. ...

The formation of popular organizations with large member bases grew in many countries, notably the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) in Britain and the Audubon Society in the US. The Audubon Society started in 1885. Both these organization were started with the primary objective of conservation. The RSPB, born in 1889, grew from a small group of women in Croydon who met regularly and called themselves the Fur, Fin and Feather Folk and who took a pledge 'to refrain from wearing the feathers of any birds not killed for the purpose of food, the Ostrich only exempted.' The organization initially did not allow men as members, avenging a policy of the British Ornithologists' Union to keep out women.^[14] The Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) is Europes largest wildlife conservation charity. ... The National Audubon Society is an American non-profit environmental organization dedicated to nature conservancy. ... For other uses, see Croydon (disambiguation). ...

Unlike the RSPB, which was primarily conservation oriented, the British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) was started in 1933 with the aim of advancing ornithological study. Members were often involved in collaborative ornithological projects. These projects have resulted in atlases which detail the distribution of bird species across Britain. In the United States, the Breeding Bird Surveys, conducted by the US Geological Survey have also produced atlases with information on breeding densities and changes in the density and distribution over time. Other volunteer collaborative ornithology projects were established in many other parts of the world.

Ornithological techniques

The tools and techniques of ornithology are varied and new inventions and approaches are quickly incorporated. The techniques may be broadly dealt under the categories of those that are applicable to specimens and those that are used in the field, however the classification is imperfect as many of the new non-destructive techniques are readily applicable in both the laboratory and field.

Specimen techniques

Main article: Bird collections

Bird preservation techniques

The early approaches to bird study involved the collection of eggs. While collecting became a pastime for many amateurs, the labels associated with these egg collections made them unreliable for the serious study of bird breeding. In order to preserve eggs, a tiny hole was pierced and the contents were extracted out. This technique became standard with the invention of the blow drill around 1830.^[14] Historic museum collections have however been of value in determining the effect of modern pesticides such as DDT.^[22][23] Marbled Godwit, Limosa fedoa, prepared as a skin (shmoo), skeleton, and spread wing Bird collections are curated repositories of scientific specimens consisting of birds and their parts. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... A cropduster spreading pesticide. ... DDT or Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane is the first modern pesticide and is one of the best known synthetic pesticides. ...

Morphometric measurements of birds are important in systematics

The use of bird skins for documenting species has been central to systematic ornithology. Bird skins are prepared by retaining the key bones of the wings, leg and skull along with the skin and feathers. They were treated with arsenic to prevent fungal and insect (mostly Dermestidae) attack. Arsenic being toxic was later replaced by borax. Sportsmen became familiar with these skinning techniques and started sending in their skins to museums, some of them from far away locations. This led to the formation of huge collections of bird skins in Museums in Europe and North America. Many private collections were also held. These became references for comparison of species and the ornithologists at these museums were able to document species from locations that they never visited. Morphometrics of these skins, particularly the lengths of the tarsus, bill, tail and wing became important in bird systematics. These historic skin collections have also been utilized in more recent studies on molecular phylogenetics by the extraction of ancient DNA. The importance of type specimens in the description of species make skin collections a vital resource for systematic ornithology. However, with the rise of molecular techniques, it has now become possible to establish the species status of rare discoveries such as the Bulo Burti Boubou Laniarius liberatus and the Bugun Liocichla Liocichla bugunorum using blood, DNA and feather samples as the holotype material. Image File history File links BirdMorpho. ... Image File history File links BirdMorpho. ... General Name, Symbol, Number arsenic, As, 33 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 15, 4, p Appearance metallic gray Standard atomic weight 74. ... Genera many, see text The skin beetles are a family Dermestidae (Gyllenhal 1808) of beetles. ... Borax from Persian burah. ... Generally, morphometrics (from the Greek: morph, meaning shape or form, and metron”, meaning measurement) comprises methods of extracting measurements from shapes. ... Molecular phylogeny is the use of the structure of molecules to gain information on an organisms evolutionary relationships. ... Ancient DNA can be loosely described as any DNA recovered from biological samples that have not been preserved specifically for later DNA analyses. ... In biology, a type is that which fixes a name to a taxon. ... Binomial name Laniarius liberatus (Smith, Arctander, Fjeldsa & Amir, 1991) The Bulo Burti Boubou (Laniarius liberatus) is a medium-sized passerine bird in the bushshrike family found 140 km inland on the Shabeelle river in central Somalia. ... Binomial name Liocichla bugunorum Athreya, 2006 The Bugun Liocichla, Liocichla bugunorum, is a passerine bird species from the Old World babbler family. ... A holotype is one of several possible types. ...

Other approaches to the preservation of bird material have included the storage of specimens in spirit. Such wet-specimens have special value in physiological and anatomical studies. They also provide better quality of DNA for molecular studies.^[24] Freeze drying of specimens has also been attempted in more recent times. While the technique has advantages in that it preserves stomach contents and anatomy, it may have the same problems as dry skins in that shrinkage can occur leading to errors in morphometrics.^{[25] [26]} Freeze drying (also known as Lyophilization) is a dehydration process typically used to preserve a perishable material, or to make the material more convenient for transport. ...

Museum bird collections continue to act as a vital shared resource for science and conservation.^[27] Marbled Godwit, Limosa fedoa, prepared as a skin (shmoo), skeleton, and spread wing Bird collections are curated repositories of scientific specimens consisting of birds and their parts. ...

Field techniques

The study of birds in the field was helped enormously by the advent of optics. Photography and particularly digital photography has made it possible now to document birds in the field with great accuracy. The new optics allows observers to detect minute morphological differences that were once detectable only by examination of the specimen in the hand.^[28]

The capture of birds however provides certain kinds of information that are critical to life-history studies. Capturing birds is done using a number of techniques. The range of capture techniques include the use of bird liming for perching birds, mist nets for woodland birds, cannon netting for open area flocking birds, the Bal chattri for raptors,^[29] decoys and funnel traps for open water ducks. Mist nets are used by ornithologists to capture wild birds for banding or other research projects. ... Cannon netting is a method of catching large numbers of animals, often birds, usually to band them, or otherwise tag them, as well as acquiring biometric data (measurements), in order to find out about their movements, migration routes, survival rates and metabolism. ... A Heligoland trap is a large, building- sized, funnel- shaped, rigid structure used to trap birds, so that they can be ringed or otherwise studied by ornithologists. ...

The bird in the hand may be examined for morphometrics including weight. The examination of feather moult gives clues on their age as also skull ossification. Sex can be determined by examination of anatomy in some sexually non-dimorphic species. The extraction of blood samples and their later study make it possible to study the physiological conditions of the bird. DNA sequences can be used to identify the geographical origins of migrant populations. These also serve in the study of pathogens and arthropod borne viruses. Ectoparasites, collected from captured specimens, are also of importance in studies of coevolution apart from their significance as vectors. In many of the warbler species, morphometrics and the examination of the wing-point are key to their identification in the hand. Generally, morphometrics (from the Greek: morph, meaning shape or form, and metron”, meaning measurement) comprises methods of extracting measurements from shapes. ... Arbovirus is a shortened name given to viruses that are transmitted by arthropods, or arthropod-borne viruses [1]. Some Arboviruses are able to cause emergent diseases. ... A parasite is an organism that lives in or on the living tissue of a host organism at the expense of that host. ...

Captured birds may also be marked for future recognition. Marking techniques include the use of bird ringing, colour dyes, wing tags. The use of mark and recapture techniques make it possible to estimate bird populations and the study of age structure in the populations. The traditional application of marking techniques is however in the study of migration. In more recent times the use of satellite transmitters makes it possible to study bird migration in real-time. Visible marks such as coloured rings and dyes enable the identification of individual birds and are widely used in studies of behaviour. Bird ringing (also known as bird banding) is an aid to studying wild birds, by attaching a small individually numbered metal or plastic ring to their legs or wings, so that various aspects of the birds life can be studied by the ability to re-find the same individual... Mark and recapture is a method commonly used in ecology to estimate population size and population vital rates (i. ...

Laboratory techniques

The variation in the ratios of stable hydrogen isotopes across latitudes makes it possible to roughly establish the origins of migrant birds by mass spectroscopic analysis of the hydrogen isotopes in feathers.^[30] Mass spectrometry is a technique for separating ions by their mass-to-charge (m/z) ratios. ...

The use of statistical techniques for the estimation of bird diversity and population density is well established. Techniques for population density estimation include the point count, transect and territory mapping.^[31] A transect is a path along which one records and counts occurrences of the phenomenon of study (e. ...

Studies in bird behaviour include the use of tamed and trained birds. Studies on bird intelligence have been primarily based on laboratory studies. Field studies make use of a wide range of techniques including the use of dummy owls to elicit mobbing behaviour, dummy males to elicit territorial behaviour and thereby to establish the boundaries of bird territories and the use of call playback. Bird intelligence deals with the definition of intelligence and its measurement as it applies to birds. ...

Collaborative studies

With the widespread interest in birds, it has been possible to use a large number of people to work on collaborative ornithological projects. These citizen science projects include national projects such as the Christmas Bird Count,^[32] Backyard Bird Count,^[33] the North American Breeding Bird Survey, the Canadian EPOQ^[34] or regional projects such as the Asian Waterfowl Census. These projects help to identify distributions of birds, their population densities and changes over time, arrival and departure dates of migration, breeding seasonality and even population genetics.^[35] Citizen science is a term used for a project (or ongoing programme of work) which aims to make scientific discoveries, verify scientific hypotheses, or gather data which can be used for scientific purposes, and which involves large numbers of people, many of whom have no specific scientific training. ... The Christmas Bird Count (CBC) is a census of birds in the Western Hemisphere, performed annually in the early Northern-hemisphere winter by volunteer birdwatchers. ... The Breeding Bird Survey monitors the status and trends of bird populations. ...

Studies of migration using bird ringing or colour marking often involve the cooperation of people and organizations in different countries.

Applied ornithology

Ornithology has many applications in human life and studies aimed at these areas are called applied or economic ornithology.

The role of some species of birds as pests has been well known, particularly in agriculture. Granivorous birds such as the Queleas in Africa have been among the most numerous birds in the world and foraging flocks can cause devastation.^[36] Large flocks of pigeons and starlings in cities have also been considered a nuisance and ornithologists have sought a variety of techniques to solve these problems. Birds have also been of medical importance and their role as carriers of diseases such as Japanese Encephalitis, West Nile Virus and H5N1 has been significant. Bird strikes and the damage they cause in aviation are also of particular importance, due in part to the fatal consequences and the level of economic impact that they have. The Federal Aviation Administration estimates that the problem costs US aviation 600 million dollars annually and has resulted in 195 worldwide deaths since 1988. Carpet beetle larvae damaging a specimen of Sceliphron destillatorius in an entomological collection A pest is an organism which has characteristics that are regarded as injurious or unwanted. ... Species Quelea cardinalis Quelea erythrops Quelea quelea Quelea is a genus of songbirds, order Passeriformes. ... Red areas show the distribution of Japanese Enecphalitis in Asia 1970-1998 Japanese Encephalitis (日本脳炎 Nihon-nōen) is a disease caused by the mosquito borne Japanese Encephalitis Virus. ... West Nile virus (WNV) is a virus of the family Flaviviridae; part of the Japanese encephalitis (JE) antigenic complex of viruses, it is found in both tropical and temperate regions. ... Influenza A virus subtype H5N1, also known as A(H5N1) or simply H5N1, is a subtype of the Influenza A virus which can cause illness in humans and many other animal species. ... F-16 canopy after a bird strike A bird strike (sometimes birdstrike, bird hit, or BASH (bird aircraft strike hazard)) in aviation, is a collision between an airborne animal (most often a bird, but also sometimes another species) and a man made vehicle, especially aircraft. ... Aviation encompasses all the activities relating to airborne devices created by human ingenuity, generally known as aircraft. ...

Many species of birds have been driven to extinction by human activities. Bird conservation requires specialized knowledge in aspects of biology, ecology and may require the use of very location specific approaches. Ornithologists contribute to conservation biology by studying the ecology of birds in the wild and identifying the key threats and ways of enhancing the survival of species. In some cases this may involve the capture and raising in captivity of critically endangered species. Such ex-situ conservation measures may be followed by re-introduction of the species into the wild. Since 1500, over 100 species of birds have become extinct, and this rate of extinction seems to be increasing. ... The extinction of the Dusky Seaside Sparrow was caused by habitat loss. ... Conservation biology, or conservation ecology, is the science of analyzing and protecting Earths biological diversity. ... Ex-situ conservation means literally, off-site conservation. It is the process of protecting an endangered species of plant or animal by removing it from an unsafe or threatened habitat and placing it or part of it under the care of humans. ...

See also

• Bird observatory
• Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology
• List of ornithological societies
• The Institute for Bird Populations

A bird observatory is a centre for the study of bird migration and bird populations. ... The Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology (EGI), at Oxford University is an academic body which conducts research in ornithology and the general field of evolutionary ecology and conservation biology, with an emphasis on understanding organisms in natural environments. ... The following is a list of regional ornithological societies. ... The Institute for Bird Populations, based in Marin County, California, is a non-profit organization dedicated to studying and monitoring bird populations, and providing land managers and policy makers with information needed to better manage those populations. ...

References

DArcy Wentworth Thompson (May 2, 1860- June 21, 1948) was a biologist and mathematician and the author of the 1917 book, On Growth and Form, an influential work of striking originality. ... Horace Gundry Alexander (July 30, 1889 - September 30, 1989) was an English Quaker teacher and writer, pacifist and ornithologist. ...

External links

• Ornithologie (1773-1792) Francois Nicholas Martinet Digital Edition Smithsonian Digital Libraries
• List of oldest ornithological organisations in the world
• History of ornithology in North America
• History of ornithology in China
• Hill ornithology collections
• History of ornithology (in Italian)