Names, routes and locations of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei) is a Greek periplus, describing navigation and trading opportunities from Roman Egyptian ports like Berenice along the coast of the Red Sea, and others along East Africa and India. The text has been ascribed to different dates between the 1st and 3rd century CE, but a mid first century date is now the most commonly accepted. Although the author is unknown, it is clearly a firsthand description by someone familiar with the area, and is nearly unique in providing accurate insights into what the ancient world knew about the lands around the Indian Ocean. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 439 pixelsFull resolution (3496 × 1918 pixel, file size: 1. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 × 439 pixelsFull resolution (3496 × 1918 pixel, file size: 1. ... A periplus in the ancient navigation of Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans is a manuscript document that lists in order the ports and coastal landmarks, with approximate distances between, that the captain of a vessel could expect to find along a shore. ... Roman commerce was the engine that drove the growth of the Roman Empire. ... The conquests of Alexander the Great brought Egypt within the orbit of the Greek world for the next 900 years. ... Berenice or Berenice Troglodytica (now known as Medinet-el Haras) is an ancient seaport of Egypt on the west coast of the Red Sea. ... Location of the Red Sea The Red Sea is an inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. ...  Eastern Africa (UN subregion)  East African Community  Central African Federation (defunct)  geographic, including above East Africa or Eastern Africa is the easternmost region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. ...

Although the "Erythraean Sea" is generally held to be the ancient term for the Red Sea, to the Greeks it included the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf. Map of the Persian Gulf. ...

Overview

Ancient map (17th century) depicting the locations of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

The work consists of 66 chapters, most of them about the length of a long paragraph in English. For instance, the short Chapter 9 reads in its entirety: Image File history File links Size of this preview: 763 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1524 × 1198 pixel, file size: 239 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Ancient map (17th century) depicting the locations of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 763 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1524 × 1198 pixel, file size: 239 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Ancient map (17th century) depicting the locations of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. ...

"From Malao (Berbera) it is two courses to the mart of Moundou, where ships anchor more safely by an island lying very close to the land. The imports to this are as aforesaid [Chapter 8 mentions iron, gold, silver, drinking cups, etc], and from it likewise are exported the same goods [Chapter 8 mentions myrrh, douaka, makeir, and slaves], and fragrant gum called mokrotou. The inhabitants who trade here are more peaceful."

In many cases the description of places is sufficiently accurate to identify their present locations; for others there is considerable debate. For instance, a "Rhapta" is mentioned as the farthest market down the African coast of "Azania", but there at least five locations matching the description, ranging from Tanga south to the Rufiji River delta. The description of the Indian coast mentions the Ganges River clearly, yet after that is somewhat garbled, describing China as a "great inland city Thina" that is a source of raw silk. Berbera (Somali Berbera) (coordinates:) is a city in the newly established Saaxil region of Somalia, and is currently part of the internationally unrecognized Republic of Somaliland. ... Rhapta was a marketplace on the coast of eastern Africa, which first rose to prominence in the first century CE. Its location has not yet been firmly identified, although there are a number of plausible candidate sites. ... Azania is the name that has been applied to various parts of sub-Saharan Africa. ... Map of the Tanga Region Tanga is both the name of the most northerly seaport city of Tanzania, and the surrounding Tanga Region. ... The Rufiji River lies entirely within the African nation of Tanzania. ... This article is about the river. ... The different usages of China in world languages generally derives from two sources, according to how knowledge of China reached the culture, whether by: the northern land_route traversing the length of Asia The land of the Seres became known in the European Middle Ages as the Empire of Cathay. ... Silk dresses Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. ...

Another interesting feature of the Periplus is that some of the words describing trade goods are seen nowhere else in ancient literature, and so we can only guess as to what they might mean. The Periplus also describes how Hippalus first discovered the direct route from the Red Sea to southern India. Hippalus was a Greek navigator who probably lived in the 1st century BCE. He is sometimes conjectured to have been the captain of the Greek explorer Eudoxus of Cyzicus ship. ...

The text derives from a Byzantine 10th century manuscript in minuscule hand, contained in the collections of the University Library of Heidelberg (CPG 398: 40v-54v) and a copy of it dating from the 14th or 15th century in the British Museum (B.M. Add 19391 9r-12r). In the 10th century manuscript the text is attributed to Arrian, probably for no deeper reason than that the manuscript was adjacent to the Periplus Pontus Euxini written by him. The Periplus was first published in a modern edition by Sigismund Gelenius in 1553. As a means of recording the passage of time, the 10th century was that century which lasted from 901 to 1000. ... This 14th-century statue from south India depicts the gods Shiva (on the left) and Uma (on the right). ... (14th century - 15th century - 16th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 15th century was that century which lasted from 1401 to 1500. ... Alexander the Great Lucius Flavius Arrianus Xenophon (c. ... // Events June 26 - Christs Hospital in London gets a Royal Charter July 6 - Edward VI of England dies July 10 - Lady Jane Grey is proclaimed Queen of England - for the next nine days July 18 - Lord Mayor of London proclaims Queen Mary as the rightful Queen - Lady Jane Grey...

Aksum

Main article: Kingdom of Aksum

Areas around the Arabian peninsula, Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.

Aksum is mentioned in the Periplus as an important market place for ivory, which was exported throughout the ancient world: The Kingdom of Aksum (or Axum, Geez አክሱም), was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa, growing from the proto-Aksumite period ca. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 709 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1077 × 911 pixel, file size: 219 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 709 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (1077 × 911 pixel, file size: 219 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ...

"From that place to the city of the people called Auxumites there is a five days' journey more; to that place all the ivory is brought from the country beyond the Nile through the district called Cyeneum, and thence to Adulis."

—Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chap.4

According to the Periplus, the ruler of Aksum in the 1st century CE was Zoscales, who, besides ruling in Aksum also held under his sway two habours on the Red Sea: Adulis (near Massawa) and Avalites (Assab). He is also said to have been familiar with Greek litterature: Zoskales, also Ze-Hakèlé (c. ... Location of the Red Sea The Red Sea is an inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. ... Massawa in the 19th century Massawa or Mitsiwa (15° 36′ 33″ N 39° 26′ 43″ E) is a port on the Red Sea coast of Eritrea. ... Assab (or Aseb) is a port in Eritrea on the west coast of the Red Sea. ...

"These places, from the Calf-Eaters to the other Berber country, are governed by Zoscales; who is miserly in his ways and always striving for more, but otherwise upright, and acquainted with Greek literature."

—Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chap.5^[1]

Himyarite kingdom and Saba (Arabia)

Coin of the Himyarite Kingdom, southern coast of the Arabian peninsula, in which stopped ships between Egypt and India passed. This is an imitation of a coin of Augustus. 1st Century CE.

Main article: Himyar

Main article: Sheba

Ships from Himyar regularly traveled the East African coast. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes the trading empire of Himyar and Saba, regrouped under a single ruler Charibael (Karab Il Watar Yuhan'em II), who is said to have been on friendly terms with Rome: Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 396 pixelsFull resolution (902 × 446 pixel, file size: 155 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 396 pixelsFull resolution (902 × 446 pixel, file size: 155 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... A state in ancient Yemen dating from 115 BCE. Conquered neighbouring Saba in 25 BCE, Qataban in 50 CE and Hadramaut 100 CE. It was the dominant state in Arabia until the sixth century. ... For other uses, see Augustus (disambiguation). ... Himyar was a state in ancient South Arabia dating from 110 BC. It conquered neighbouring Saba in 25 BC, Qataban in AD 50 and Hadramaut AD 100. ... Sheba (from the English transcription of the Hebrew name shva: שבא, and Saba, Arabic: سبأ, also Saba, Amharic: ሳባ) is a southern kingdom mentioned in the Jewish scriptures (Old Testament) and the Quran. ... Himyar was a state in ancient South Arabia dating from 110 BC. It conquered neighbouring Saba in 25 BC, Qataban in AD 50 and Hadramaut AD 100. ... Sheba (from the English transcription of the Hebrew name shva: שבא, and Saba, Arabic: سبأ, also Saba, Amharic: ሳባ) is a southern kingdom mentioned in the Jewish scriptures (Old Testament) and the Quran. ... Nickname: Motto: SPQR: Senatus Populusque Romanus Location of the city of Rome (yellow) within the Province of Rome (red) and region of Lazio (grey) Coordinates: Region Lazio Province Province of Rome Founded 21 April 753 BC Government  - Mayor Walter Veltroni Area  - City 1,285 km²  (580 sq mi)  - Urban 5...

"23. And after nine days more there is Saphar, the metropolis, in which lives Charibael, lawful king of two tribes, the Homerites and those living next to them, called the Sabaites; through continual embassies and gifts, he is a friend of the Emperors." Himyarite Kingdom (red) in the 3rd century CE. The Homerite Kingdom is described in the southern tip of the Arabian peninsula in the 1st century Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. ...

—Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Paragraph 23.^[2]

Frankincense kingdom

The Frankincense kingdom is described further east along the southern coast of the Arabian peninsula, with the harbour of Cana (South Arabic "Qana", modern Bir Ali). The ruler of this kingdom is named Eleazus, or Eleazar, thought to correspond to king Iliazz Yalit I: Eleazus, also Eleazar or Iliazz Yalit I was the Hadramaut king of the southern tip of the Arabian peninsula, the Frankincense kingdom, in the first century CE. The main harbour of the kingdom was Cana (Kanê). His capital was the city of Sheba (Sabat), also known for the legendary Queen...

"27. After Eudaemon Arabia there is a continuous length of coast, and a bay extending two thousand stadia or more, along which there are Nomads and Fish-Eaters living in villages; just beyond the cape projecting from this bay there is another market-town by the shore, Cana, of the Kingdom of Eleazus, the Frankincense Country; and facing it there are two desert islands, one called Island of Birds, the other Dome Island, one hundred and twenty stadia from Cana. Inland from this place lies the metropolis Sabbatha, in which the King lives. All the frankincense produced in the country is brought by camels to that place to be stored, and to Cana on rafts held up by inflated skins after the manner of the country, and in boats. And this place has a trade also with the far-side ports, with Barygaza and Scythia and Ommana and the neighboring coast of Persia." Bharuch is located in Bharuch District, Gujarat. ... Approximate extent of Scythia and Sarmatia in the 1st century BC (the orange background shows the spread of Eastern Iranian languages, among them Scytho-Sarmatian). ... For other uses of this term see: Persia (disambiguation) The Persian Empire is the name used to refer to a number of historic dynasties that have ruled the country of Persia (Iran). ...

—Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chap 27

Barigaza (India)

Trade with the Indian harbour of Barigaza is described extensively in the Periplus. Nahapana, ruler of the Indo-Scythian Western Satraps is mentioned under the name Nambanus,^[3] as ruler of the area around Barigaza: , Early Middle Ages map showing Western trade regions serviced by this ancient and historical port. ... Nahapana (119-124 CE) was an important ruler of the Western Kshatrapas, descendant of the Indo-Scythians, in northwestern India. ... The Indo-Scythian King of Kings Azes II (c. ... The Western Satraps, or Western Kshatrapas (35-405) were Saka rulers of the western and central part of India (Saurashtra and Malwa: modern Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh states). ... , Early Middle Ages map showing Western trade regions serviced by this ancient and historical port. ...

Coin of Nahapana (119-124 CE).
Obv: Bust of king Nahapana with a legend in Greek script "PANNIΩ IAHAPATAC NAHAΠANAC", transliteration of the Prakrit Raño Kshaharatasa Nahapanasa: "King Kshaharata Nahapana".
Rev: Thunderbolt and arrow, within a Prakrit Brahmi legend to right: Rajno Ksaharatasa Nahapanasa: Prakrit Kharoshti legend to left: Rano Ksaharatasa Nahapanasa.

41. "Beyond the gulf of Baraca is that of Barygaza and the coast of the country of Ariaca, which is the beginning of the Kingdom of Nambanus and of all India. That part of it lying inland and adjoining Scythia is called Abiria, but the coast is called Syrastrene. It is a fertile country, yielding wheat and rice and sesame oil and clarified butter, cotton and the Indian cloths made therefrom, of the coarser sorts. Very many cattle are pastured there, and the men are of great stature and black in color. The metropolis of this country is Minnagara, from which much cotton cloth is brought down to Barygaza." Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Nahapana (119-124 CE) was an important ruler of the Western Kshatrapas, descendant of the Indo-Scythians, in northwestern India. ... Events Roman Empire Roman Emperor Hadrian stations the Legio VI Victrix in Roman Britain, to assist in quelling a local rebellion. ... Events Roman emperor Hadrian begins to rebuild the Olympeion in Athens. ... Prakrit (also spelt Pracrit) (Sanskrit: , original, natural, artless, normal, ordinary, usual, i. ... BrāhmÄ« refers to the pre-modern members of the Brahmic family of scripts, attested from the 3rd century BC. The best known and earliest dated inscriptions in Brahmi are the rock-cut edicts of Ashoka. ... Prakrit (also spelt Pracrit) (Sanskrit: , original, natural, artless, normal, ordinary, usual, i. ... The Kharoṣṭhī script, also known as the Gāndhārī script, is an ancient alphabetic script used by the Gandhara culture of historic northwest India to write the Gandhari and Sanskrit languages (the Gandhara kingdom was located along the present-day border... Gulf of Kutch on the left. ... Bharuch is a city and a municipality in Bharuch district in the state of Gujarat, India. ... Abiria was a region of India described by Classical authors, mainly Ptolemy. ... Saraostus (also Surastrene, modern Saurashtra in India) was the name given by the Greeks to the area of Saurashtra and the Surat area, the southern part of todays Indian state of Gujarat, bordering the city of Bombay. ... Minnagara was a city of the Indo-Scythian kingdom, located on the Indus river in modern Pakistan, north of the coastal city of Barbaricum. ...

—Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chap. 41 ^[4]

Under the Western Satraps, Barigaza was one of the main centers of Roman trade with India. The Periplus describes the many goods exchanged: Roman trade with India according to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 1st century CE. A Greco-Roman gladiator on a glass vessel, Begram, 2nd century AD Roman trade with India started around the beginning of the Common Era (CE) following the reign of Augustus and his conquest of Egypt...

49. There are imported into this market-town (Barigaza), wine, Italian preferred, also Laodicean and Arabian; copper, tin, and lead; coral and topaz; thin clothing and inferior sorts of all kinds; bright-colored girdles a cubit wide; storax, sweet clover, flint glass, realgar, antimony, gold and silver coin, on which there is a profit when exchanged for the money of the country; and ointment, but not very costly and not much. And for the King there are brought into those places very costly vessels of silver, singing boys, beautiful maidens for the harem, fine wines, thin clothing of the finest weaves, and the choicest ointments. There are exported from these places spikenard, costus, bdellium, ivory, agate and carnelian, lycium, cotton cloth of all kinds, silk cloth, mallow cloth, yarn, long pepper and such other things as are brought here from the various market-towns. Those bound for this market-town from Egypt make the voyage favorably about the month of July, that is Epiphi." Laodicea is a Hellenistic name that can apply to at least six cities named for a Seleucid queen of the 3rd century BCE. They include: Laodicea ad Mare modern Latakia, Syria Laodicea ad Lycum near modern Denizli, Turkey was the metropolis of Phrygia Pacatiana. ... The Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula is a mainly desert peninsula in Southwest Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia and an important part of the greater Middle East. ... Orpiment and Realgar Realgar is an arsenic sulfide mineral with formula: As4S4. ... General Name, Symbol, Number antimony, Sb, 51 Chemical series metalloids Group, Period, Block 15, 5, p Appearance silvery lustrous grey Standard atomic weight 121. ... Binomial name Nardostachys grandiflora DC. Spikenard (also nard and muskroot) is a flowering plant of the Valerian family that grows in the Himalayas of India and Nepal. ... The plant known to the Ancient Romans as costus is probably Saussurea lappa Costus is a genus of perennial tropical herbs. ... Bedellium (Hebrew bedolach) was probably an aromatic gum like balsam that was exuded from a tree, probably one of several species in the genus Commiphora. ... Imprint of a carnelian seal with Brahmi inscription Kusumadasasya (Flowers servant). 4-5th century CE, probably Punjab. ... Species About 100, including: Lycium afrum Lycium barbarum - wolfberry Lycium carolinianum Lycium chilense Lycium depressum Lycium europaeum Lycium ferocissimum Lycium pallidum Lycium ruthenicum Lycium tetrandrum Boxthorn (Lycium) is a genus of about 100 species of plants in the Solanaceae, native throughout most of the tropical and warm temperate zones of...

—Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chapter 49.^[5]

Goods were also brought down in quantity from Ujjain, the capital of the Western Satraps: , Ujjain   (Hindi:उज्जैन) (also known as Ujain, Ujjayini, Avanti, Avantikapuri) is an ancient city of central India, in the Malwa region of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, on the eastern bank of the Kshipra River. ...

48. Inland from this place and to the east, is the city called Ozene, formerly a royal capital; from this place are brought down all things needed for the welfare of the country about Barygaza, and many things for our trade : agate and carnelian, Indian muslins and mallow cloth, and much ordinary cloth.

—Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, Chapter 48.^[6]

Remains of the Indo-Greek kingdom

The Periplus explains that coins of the Indo-Greek king Menander I were current in Barigaza.

The Periplus describes numerous Greek buildings and fortifications in Barigaza, although mistakenly attributing them to Alexander the Great, who never went this far south. If true, this account would relate to the remains of the southern expansion of the Indo-Greeks into Gujerat: Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 401 pixelsFull resolution (1893 × 949 pixel, file size: 621 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 800 × 401 pixelsFull resolution (1893 × 949 pixel, file size: 621 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Maximum extent of Indo-Greek territory circa 175 BCE. The Indo-Greeks (or sometimes Greco-Indians) designate a series of Greek kings, who invaded and controlled parts of northwest and northern India from 180 BCE to around 10 BCE. They are the continuation of the Greco-Bactrian dynasty of Greek... Tetradrachm of Menander I in Greco-Bactrian style (Alexandria-Kapisa mint). ... Bharuch is a city and a municipality in Bharuch district in the state of Gujarat, India. ... Alexander the Great (Greek: ,[1] Megas Alexandros; July 356 BC–June 11, 323 BC), also known as Alexander III, king of Macedon (336–323 BC), was one of the most successful military commanders in history. ... Maximum extent of Indo-Greek territory circa 175 BCE. The Indo-Greeks (or sometimes Greco-Indians) designate a series of Greek kings, who invaded and controlled parts of northwest and northern India from 180 BCE to around 10 BCE. They are the continuation of the Greco-Bactrian dynasty of Greek... Gujarat (Hindi: गुजरात) is the most industrialized state in India after Maharashtra and is located in western India, bordered by Pakistan to the northwest and Rajasthan to the north. ...

"The metropolis of this country is Minnagara, from which much cotton cloth is brought down to Barygaza. In these places there remain even to the present time signs of the expedition of Alexander, such as ancient shrines, walls of forts and great wells."

—Periplus, Chap. 41

The Periplus further testifies to the circulation of Indo-Greek coinage in the region:

"To the present day ancient drachmae are current in Barygaza, coming from this country, bearing inscriptions in Greek letters, and the devices of those who reigned after Alexander, Apollodorus (sic) and Menander." Indo-Greek king Apollodotus I (180-160 BCE). ... Tetradrachm of Menander I in Greco-Bactrian style (Alexandria-Kapisa mint). ...

—Periplus Chap. 47^[7]

The Greek city of Alexandria Bucephalous on the Jhelum river is mentionned in the Periplus, as well as in the Roman Peutinger Table: Alexandria Bucephalous was located on the Hydaspes. ... Jhelum or Jehlum may mean: Jhelum River in India and Pakistan Jhelum City in Punjab, Pakistan Jhelum District in Punjab, Pakistan This is a disambiguation page: a list of articles associated with the same title. ... The Tabula Peutingeriana (Peutinger table) is a map showing the road network in the Roman Empire. ...

"The country inland of Barigaza is inhabited by numerous tribes, such as the Arattii, the Arachosii, the Gandaraei and the people of Poclais, in which is Bucephalus Alexandria" , Early Middle Ages map showing Western trade regions serviced by this ancient and historical port. ...

—Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 47 ^[8]

Notes

References

• Lionel Casson, The Periplus Maris Erythraei: Text With Introduction, Translation, and Commentary (Princeton University Press, 1989) ISBN 0-691-04060-5
• Chami, F. A. 1999. “The Early Iron Age on Mafia island and its relationship with the mainland.” Azania Vol. XXXIV 1999, pp. 1-10.
• Chami, Felix A. 2002. “The Graeco-Romans and Paanchea/Azania: sailing in the Erythraean Sea”. From: Red Sea Trade and Travel. The British Museum. Organised by The Society for Arabian Studies. Downloaded on 20 July, 2003 from: http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/ane/fullpapers.doc
• Dihle, A. 1965. Umstrittene Daten - Untersuchungen zum Auftreten der Griechen am Roten Meer, Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen der Arbeitsgemeinschaft Für Forschung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen. Köln und Opladen: Westdeutscher Verlag.
• The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, transl. G.W.B. Huntingford (Hakluyt Society, 1980) ISBN 0-904180-05-0 (also includes translation of Red Sea material from Agatharchides)
• Hjalmar Frisk, Le Périple de la Mer Erythrée (Göteborg, 1927)
• Miller, J. Innes. 1969. The Spice Trade of The Roman Empire: 29 B.C. to A.D. 641. Oxford University Press. Special edition for Sandpiper Books. 1998. ISBN 0-19-814264-1.
• Fussman, G. 1991. Le Periple et l'historie politique del'Inde Journal Asiatique 279 (1991):31-38.
• The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, transl. Wilfred Schoff (1912, reprinted South Asia Books 1995) ISBN 81-215-0699-9
• Robin, C. 1991. L'Arabie du sud et la date du Périple de la mer érythrée. Journal Asiatique 279:1-30.

The Princeton University Press is a publishing house, a division of Princeton University, that is highly respected in academic publishing. ... The Hakluyt Society is a society named after Richard Hakluyt. ... Agatharchides of Cnidus, was a Greek historian and geographer (flourished 2nd century BC); Strabo (14. ... Hjalmar Frisk (1900 - 1984) was a Swedish linguist in Indo-European studies and rector of Göteborg University 1951-1966. ...

External links

• [1] "The present text has been digitalized from the translation of William H. Schoff, The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: Travel and Trade in the Indian Ocean by a Merchant of the First Century (New York: Longmans, Green, and Co., 1912). Some additional commentary including alternate spellings or translations from Lionel Casson’s more recent edition are given in square brackets."
• Ancient history sourcebook: e-text Periplus of the Erythraean Sea This is the basic text from Schoff's 1912 translation.