Physical chemistry, is the application of physics to macroscopic, microscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems^[1] within the field of chemistry traditionally using the principles, practices and concepts of thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics and kinetics.^[2] It is mostly defined as a large field of chemistry, in which several sub-concepts are applied; the inclusion of quantum mechanics is used to illustrate the application of physical chemistry to atomic and particulate chemical interaction or experimentation.^[1] A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. ... For other uses, see Chemistry (disambiguation). ... Thermodynamics (from the Greek θερμη, therme, meaning heat and δυναμις, dynamis, meaning power) is a branch of physics that studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, and volume on physical systems at the macroscopic scale by analyzing the collective motion of their particles using statistics. ... Quantum chemistry is a branch of theoretical chemistry, which applies quantum mechanics and quantum field theory to address issues and problems in chemistry. ... Statistical mechanics is the application of probability theory, which includes mathematical tools for dealing with large populations, to the field of mechanics, which is concerned with the motion of particles or objects when subjected to a force. ... Look up kinetics in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For a generally accessible and less technical introduction to the topic, see Introduction to quantum mechanics. ...

Physical chemistry is mostly referred to as a macromolecular doctrine, as the majority of the principles on which physical chemistry was founded are composed entirely of macromolecular concepts, such as colloids.^[3] A colloid or colloidal dispersion, is a form of matter intermediate between a true solution and a mixture (suspension). ...

The relationships that physical chemistry tries to resolve include the effects of:

1. Intermolecular forces on the physical properties of materials (plasticity, tensile strength, surface tension in liquids).
2. Reaction kinetics on the rate of a reaction.
3. The identity of ions on the electrical conductivity of materials.

Intermolecular forces are electromagnetic forces which act between molecules or between widely separated regions of a macromolecule. ... Look up plasticity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Tensile strength isthe measures the force required to pull something such as rope, wire, or a structural beam to the point where it breaks. ... This box:      Surface tension is an effect within the surface layer of a liquid that causes that layer to behave as an elastic sheet. ... For other uses, see Liquid (disambiguation). ... In physical chemistry, chemical kinetics or reaction kinetics is the study of reaction rates in a chemical reaction. ... Iron rusting - a chemical reaction with a slow reaction rate. ...

History

The term "physical chemistry" was probably first introduced by Mikhail Lomonosov in 1752, when he presented a lecture course entitled "A Course in True Physical Chemistry" (Russian: «Курс истинной физической химии») before the students of Petersburg University. For other uses, see Lomonosov (disambiguation). ... 1752 was a leap year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Categories: Russia-related stubs | Universities and colleges in Russia | Saint Petersburg ...

The foundation of modern physical chemistry is thought to have been laid in 1876 by Josiah Willard Gibbs after the publishing of his paper, On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances, which contained several of the cornerstones of physical chemistry, such as Gibbs energy, chemical potentials, Gibbs phase rule ^[4] and subsequent naming and accreditation of enthalpy to Heike Kamerlingh Onnes and to macromolecular processes.^{[citation needed]} Year 1876 (MDCCCLXXVI) // January 31 - United States orders all Indigenous peoples in the United States to move onto reservations February 2 - The National League of Professional Baseball Clubs of Major League Baseball is formed. ... Josiah Willard Gibbs (February 11, 1839 New Haven – April 28, 1903 New Haven) was one of the very first American theoretical physicists and chemists. ... In the history of thermodynamics, On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances is a 300-page paper written by American mathematical-engineer Willard Gibbs. ... In thermodynamics, the Gibbs free energy is a thermodynamic potential which measures the useful work obtainable from a closed thermodynamic system at a constant temperature and pressure. ... In thermodynamics and chemistry, chemical potential, symbolized by μ, is a term introduced in 1876 by the American mathematical physicist Willard Gibbs, which he defined as follows: Gibbs noted also that for the purposes of this definition, any chemical element or combination of elements in given proportions may be considered a... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Gibbs phase rule. ... Heike Kamerlingh Onnes (September 21, 1853 – February 21, 1926) was a Dutch physicist. ... A macromolecule is a molecule of high relative molecular mass, the structure of which essentially comprises the multiple repetition of units derived, actually or conceptually, from molecules of low relative molecular mass. ...

The first scientific journal for publications specifically in the field of physical chemistry was the German journal, Zeitschrift für physikalische Chemie, founded in 1887 by Wilhelm Ostwald and Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff. Nature, Science and PNAS In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research. ... Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie is a German publication transliterated as International journal of research in physical chemistry and chemical physics. It covers the latest developments and research in the field of physical chemistry including electrochemistry and thermodynamics. ... Year 1887 (MDCCCLXXXVII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald (commonly just Wilhelm Ostwald) (September 2, 1853 - April 4, 1932) was a German chemist. ... Jacobus Henricus van t Hoff (August 30, 1852 - March 1, 1911) was a Dutch physical and organic chemist and the winner of the inaugural Nobel Prize in chemistry. ...

Notes

1. ^ ^{a b} Physical Chemistry (p3 - "PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY"), states that the field of physical chemistry is concerned with the microscopic and the macroscopic phenomenon which are mostly concerned with thermodynamics, and kinetics; the field of atomic and particulate interaction being included is implied with the inclusion of quantum chemistry.
2. ^ Quantum Chemistry (p3 - "PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY"), states that "We can divide physical chemistry into four areas: thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics and kinetics".
3. ^ Physical Chemistry of Macromolecules (p1 - "INTRODUCTION"), defines the formation of physical chemistry as being between macromolecules and colloids in modern physical chemistry. Also defines the "fierce battles" in the 1900s between the inclusion of colloids AS macromolecules.
4. ^ Josiah Willard Gibbs, 1876, "On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances", Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Sciences

In the history of thermodynamics, On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances is a 300-page paper written by American mathematical-engineer Willard Gibbs. ...

References

1. Levine, I. N. (1978). Physical Chemistry McGraw-Hill publishing ISBN 0-07-037418-X
2. Atkins, P.W. (1978). Physical Chemistry Oxford University Press ISBN 0-7167-3539-X
3. Berry, S. R., Rice, S. A, Ross, J. (2000). Physical Chemistry 2nd ed. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510589-3
4. Hunter, R. J. (1993) Introduction to Modern Colloid Science Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-855386-2
5. Hiemenz, P. C., Rajagopalan, R., (1997). Principles of Colloid and Surface Chemistry Marcel Dekker Inc., New York. ISBN 0-8247-9397-8
6. Gonzales, Paul(1963). Physical Chemistry 4th ed. Longman publishers/London/Prentice Hall, NJ.

Peter William Atkins (b. ... Oxford University Press (OUP) is a highly-respected publishing house and a department of the University of Oxford in England. ...

See also

Sub-topics

• Photochemistry
• Thermochemistry
• Chemical kinetics
• Quantum chemistry
• Electrochemistry
• Surface chemistry
• Solid-state chemistry
• spectroscopy
• Materials science
• Molecular modelling

Photochemistry is the study of the interaction of light and chemicals. ... The world’s first ice-calorimeter, used in the winter of 1782-83, by Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre-Simon Laplace, to determine the heat evolved in various chemical changes; calculations which were based on Joseph Black’s prior discovery of latent heat. ... In physical chemistry, chemical kinetics or reaction kinetics is the study of reaction rates in a chemical reaction. ... Quantum chemistry is a branch of theoretical chemistry, which applies quantum mechanics and quantum field theory to address issues and problems in chemistry. ... English chemists John Daniell (left) and Michael Faraday (right), both credited to be founders of electrochemistry as known today. ... Surface chemistry is the study of chemical phenomena that occur at the interface of two phases, usually between a gas and a solid or between a liquid and a solid. ... Solid-state chemistry is the study of solid materials, which may be molecular. ... Animation of the dispersion of light as it travels through a triangular prism. ... The Materials Science Tetrahedron, which often also includes Characterization at the center Materials science or Materials Engineering is an interdisciplinary field involving the properties of matter and its applications to various areas of science and engineering. ... The backbone dihedral angles are included in the molecular model of a protein. ...

Publications

• Important publications in physical chemistry(chemistry),
• Important publications in physical chemistry(physics)

Mr. Gonzales This is a list of important publications in chemistry, organized by field. ... This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. ... For other uses, see Chemistry (disambiguation). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Wöhler observes the synthesis of urea. ... Bioinorganic Chemistry is a specialized field that spans the chemistry of metal-containing molecules. ... Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes and transformations in living organisms. ... Chemical biology is a scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology that frequently employs compounds produced by synthetic chemistry to study and manipulate biological systems. ... Chemistry education is an active area of research within both the disciplines of chemistry and education, focusing on learning and teaching of chemistry in schools, colleges and universities, with the goals of understanding how students learn chemistry, how best to teach chemistry, and how to improve learning outcomes by changing... Click chemistry is a concept introduced by K. Barry Sharpless in 2001 and describes chemistry tailored to generate substances quickly and reliably by joining small units together as nature does. ... In chemistry, a cluster is an ensemble of bound atoms intermediate in size between a molecule and a bulk solid. ... Computational chemistry is a branch of chemistry that uses the results of theoretical chemistry incorporated into efficient computer programs to calculate the structures and properties of molecules and solids, applying these programs to complement the information obtained by actual chemical experiments, predict hitherto unobserved chemical phenomena, and solve related problems. ... English chemists John Daniell (left) and Michael Faraday (right), both credited to be founders of electrochemistry as known today. ... Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. ... Green chemistry is a chemical philosophy encouraging the design of products and processes that reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances. ... Inorganic chemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. ... The Materials Science Tetrahedron, which often also includes Characterization at the center Materials science or Materials Engineering is an interdisciplinary field involving the properties of matter and its applications to various areas of science and engineering. ... Medicinal or pharmaceutical chemistry is a scientific discipline at the intersection of chemistry and pharmacy involved with designing, synthesizing and developing pharmaceutical drugs. ... Nuclear chemistry is a subfield of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes and nuclear properties. ... Organic chemistry is a specific discipline within chemistry which involves the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of chemical compounds consisting primarily of carbon and hydrogen, which may contain any number of other elements, including nitrogen, oxygen, the halogens as... n-butyllithium, an organometallic compound. ... For other uses, see Pharmacy (disambiguation). ... Pharmacology (in Greek: pharmakon (φάρμακον) meaning drug, and lego (λέγω) to tell (about)) is the study of how drugs interact with living organisms to produce a change in function. ... Photochemistry is the study of the interaction of light and chemicals. ... Polymer chemistry or macromolecular chemistry is a multidisciplinary science that deals with the chemical synthesis and chemical properties of polymers or macromolecules. ... Solid-state chemistry is the study of solid materials, which may be molecular. ... Supramolecular chemistry refers to the area of chemistry which focuses on the noncovalent bonding interactions of molecules. ... Theoretical chemistry involves the use of physics to explain or predict chemical phenomena. ... The world’s first ice-calorimeter, used in the winter of 1782-83, by Antoine Lavoisier and Pierre-Simon Laplace, to determine the heat evolved in various chemical changes; calculations which were based on Joseph Black’s prior discovery of latent heat. ... Wet chemistry is a term used to refer to chemistry generally done in the liquid phase. ... This page aims to list articles on Wikipedia that describe particular biomolecules or types of biomolecules. ... This page aims to list well-known inorganic compounds, including organometallic compounds, to stimulate the creation of Wikipedia articles. ... This page aims to list well-known organic compounds, including organometallic compounds, to stimulate the creation of Wikipedia articles. ... The Periodic Table redirects here. ...