This article is about the sociologist. For the economist, see Robert C. Merton.

Robert King Merton (July 4, 1910 – February 23, 2003, born Meyer R. Schkolnick to immigrant parents) was a distinguished American sociologist perhaps best known for having coined the phrase "self-fulfilling prophecy." He also coined many other phrases that have gone into everyday use, such as "role model" and "unintended consequences". He spent most of his career teaching at Columbia University, where he attained the rank of University Professor. If you hold the copyright to an image (e. ... If you hold the copyright to an image (e. ... Robert C. Merton (born July 31, 1944), a leading scholar in the field of finance, was one of three men who, in the early 1970s, developed the mathematics of the stock options markets. ... is the 185th day of the year (186th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1910 (MCMX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Friday [1] of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... is the 54th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Sociology is the study of the social lives of humans, groups and societies. ... A self-fulfilling prophecy is a prediction that directly or indirectly causes itself to become true. ... Don Imus, The term role model was introduced by Robert K. Merton[1]. Merton says that individuals compare themselves with reference groups of people who occupy the social role to which the individual aspires. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Alma Mater Columbia University in the City of New York is a private university in the United States and a member of the Ivy League. ...

It is a popular misconception that Robert K. Merton was one of Talcott Parsons’ students. Parsons was only a junior member of his dissertation committee, the others being Pitirim Sorokin, Carle C. Zimmermanm and the historian of science, George Sarton. The dissertation, a quantitative social history of the development of science in seventeenth-century England, reflected this interdisciplinary committee.[Merton, 1985] Merton was heavily influenced by Pitirim Sorokin, who tried to balance large-scale theorizing with a strong interest in empirical research and statistical studies. Sorokin and Paul Lazarsfeld influenced Merton to occupy himself with middle-range theories. Talcott Parsons Talcott Edgar Frederick Parsons (December 13, 1902–May 8, 1979) was for many years the best-known sociologist in the United States, and indeed one of the best-known in the world. ... Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin (1889-1968) immigrated from Russia to the United States in 1923 where he founded the Department of Sociology at Harvard University. ... George Alfred Leon Sarton (1884-1956) was a seminal Belgian-American polymath and historian of science. ... Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin (1889-1968) immigrated from Russia to the United States in 1923 where he founded the Department of Sociology at Harvard University. ... Image needed Paul Felix Lazarsfeld (1901-1976) was one of the major figures in 20th century American Sociology. ... Middle range theory, developed by Robert K. Merton, is an approach to sociology bridging the gap between the theory and empirical evidence. ...

Biography

Robert K. Merton was born to working class Jewish Eastern European immigrants on July 4, 1910, in Philadelphia. Educated in the South Philadelphia High School, he became a frequent visitor of the nearby Andrew Carnegie Library, The Academy of Music, Central Library, Museum of Arts and other cultural and educational centres. He started his sociological career under the guidance of George E. Simpson at Temple University in Philadelphia (1927-1931), and Pitrim A. Sorokin in Harvard University (1931-1936).^[1] The term working class is used to denote a social class. ... For other uses, see Jew (disambiguation). ... Eastern Europe is, by convention, a region defined geographically as that part of Europe covering the eastern part of the continent. ... is the 185th day of the year (186th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1910 (MCMX) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Friday [1] of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... For other uses, see Philadelphia (disambiguation) and Philly. ... South Philadelphia High School, known as Southern, started with a very poor immigrant population and has served a low-middle income neighborhood. ... A Carnegie library, opened in 1913 in Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, designed in Spanish Colonial style Carnegie libraries for both public use and academic institutions were built with money donated by Scottish-American businessman Andrew Carnegie, earning him the nickname, the Patron Saint of Libraries. ... Pitirim A. Sorokin (1889-1968) immigrated from Russia to the United States in 1923 where he founded the Department of Sociology at Harvard University. ... Harvard University (incorporated as The President and Fellows of Harvard College) is a private university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA and a member of the Ivy League. ...

He taught at Harvard until 1939, when he became professor and chairman of the Department of Sociology at Tulane University. In 1941 he joined the Columbia University faculty, becoming Giddings Professor of Sociology in 1963. He was named to the University's highest academic rank, University Professor, in 1974 and became Special Service Professor upon his retirement in 1979, a title reserved by the Trustees for emeritus faculty who "render special services to the University." In recognition of his lasting contributions to scholarship and the University, Columbia established the Robert K. Merton Professorship in the Social Sciences in 1990. He was associate director of the University's Bureau of Applied Social Research from 1942 to 1971. He was an adjunct faculty member at Rockefeller University and was also the first Foundation Scholar at the Russell Sage Foundation.^[2] He withdrew from teaching in 1984. Tulane University is a private, nonsectarian, coeducational research university located in New Orleans, Louisiana. ... Alma Mater Columbia University in the City of New York is a private university in the United States and a member of the Ivy League. ... Founders Hall Rockefeller University is a private university focusing primarily on graduate and postgraduate education research in the biomedical fields, located between 63rd and 68th Streets along York Avenue, on the Upper East Side of Manhattan island in New York City, New York. ... The Russell Sage Foundation is a small foundation located in New York City that is devoted exclusively to research in the social sciences. ...

Merton received many national and international honors for his research. He was one of the first sociologists elected to the National Academy of Sciences and the first American sociologist to be elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and a Corresponding Fellow of the British Academy. He was also a member of the American Philosophical Society, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, which awarded him its Parsons Prize, the National Academy of Education and Academica Europaea.^[2] President Harding and the National Academy of Sciences at the White House, Washington, DC, April 1921 The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is a corporation in the United States whose members serve pro bono as advisers to the nation on science, engineering, and medicine. ... The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences or , founded in 1739 by King Frederick I, is one of the Royal Academies in Sweden. ... The British Academy is the United Kingdoms national academy for the humanities and the social sciences. ... The American Philosophical Society is a discussion group founded as the Junto in 1743 by Benjamin Franklin. ... The House of the Academy, Cambridge, Massachusetts. ...

He received a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1962 and was the first sociologist to be named a MacArthur Fellow (1983-88). More than 20 universities awarded him honorary degrees, including Harvard, Yale, Columbia and Chicago, and, abroad, the Universities of Leyden, Wales, Oslo and Kraków, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Oxford.^[2] Guggenheim Fellowships are awarded annually by the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation to those who have demonstrated exceptional capacity for productive scholarship or exceptional creative ability in the arts. ... The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation is a private, independent grantmaking institution. ... An honorary degree (Latin: honoris causa ad gradum, not to be confused with an honors degree) is an academic degree awarded to an individual as a decoration, rather than as the result of matriculating and studying for several years. ...

In 1994, Merton was awarded the US National Medal of Science for his work in the field was the first sociologist to receive the prize.^[2] Year 1994 (MCMXCIV) The year 1994 was designated as the International Year of the Family and the International Year of the Sport and the Olympic Ideal by the United Nations. ... National Medal of Science The National Medal of Science is an honor given by the President of the United States to individuals in science and engineering who have made important contributions to the advancement of knowledge in the fields of behavioral and social sciences, biology, chemistry, engineering, mathematics and physics. ...

Merton was married twice, including to fellow sociologist Harriet Zuckerman. He had one son and two daughters from the first marriage, including Robert C. Merton, winner of the 1997 Nobel Prize in economics. Harriet Zuckerman is an American sociologist who specializes in the sociology of science. ... Robert C. Merton (born July 31, 1944), a leading scholar in the field of finance, was one of three men who, in the early 1970s, developed the mathematics of the stock options markets. ... The Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel (Sveriges Riksbanks pris i ekonomisk vetenskap till Alfred Nobels minne), also known as the Nobel Prize in Economics, is a prize awarded each year for outstanding intellectual contributions in the field of economics. ...

His daughter, Vanessa Merton, is a Professor of Law at Pace University School of Law. Pace University School of Law, known colloquially as Pace Law School, is the law school of Pace University, a comprehensive, independent, and diversified university with campuses in New York City and Westchester County. ...

Works

Theories of the middle range

Middle-range theories, applicable to limited ranges of data, transcend sheer description of social phenomena and fill in the blanks between raw empiricism and grand or all-inclusive theory. In his advocacy of these kinds of theories Merton stands on the shoulders of Emile Durkheim and Max Weber. Middle range theory, developed by Robert K. Merton, is an approach to sociology bridging the gap between the theory and empirical evidence. ... Social phenomena include all behavior which influences or is influenced by organisms sufficiently alive to respond to one another. ... In philosophy generally, empiricism is a theory of knowledge emphasizing the role of experience in the formation of ideas, while discounting the notion of innate ideas. ... David Émile Durkheim (April 15, 1858 - November 15, 1917) is known as the founder of modern sociology. ... For the politician, see Max Weber (politician). ...

Clarifying functional analysis

Merton argues that the central orientation of functionalism is in interpreting data by their consequences for larger structures in which they are implicated. Like Durkheim and Parsons he analyzes society with reference to whether cultural and social structures are well or badly integrated. Merton is also interested in the persistence of societies and defines functions that make for the adaptation of a given social system. Finally, Merton thinks that shared values are central in explaining how societies and institutions work. However he disagrees with Parsons on some issues which will be brought to attention in the following part. Functionalism is a term with several senses: For functionalism in sociology, see Functionalism (sociology). ... For other uses, see Society (disambiguation). ... See Social structure of the United States for an explanation of concepts exsistance within US society. ... The article is about functionalism in sociology; for other uses, see functionalism. ... Social structure (also referred to as a social system) is a system in which people forming the society are organized by a patterns of prelationships. ... A social institution is any institution in a socity that works to socialize the groups or people in it. ...

Dysfunctions

Parsons’ work tends to imply that all institutions are inherently good for society. Merton emphasizes the existence of dysfunctions. He thinks that some things may have consequences that are generally dysfunctional or which are dysfunctional for some and functional for others. On this point he approaches conflict theory, although he does believe that institutions and values can be functional for society as a whole. Merton states that only by recognizing the dysfunctional aspects of institutions, can we explain the development and persistence of alternatives. Merton’s concept of dysfunctions is also central to his argument that functionalism is not essentially conservative. This page is a candidate to be moved to Wiktionary. ... In sociology, conflict theory states that the society or organization functions so that each individual participant and its groups struggle to maximize their benefits, which inevitably contributes to social change such as changes in politics and revolutions. ...

Manifest and latent functions

For more details on this topic, see Manifest and latent functions and dysfunctions.

Manifest functions are the consequences that people observe or expect, latent functions are those that are neither recognized nor intended. While Parsons tends to emphasize the manifest functions of social behavior, Merton sees attention to latent functions as increasing the understanding of society: the distinction between manifest and latent forces the sociologist to go beyond the reasons individuals give for their actions or for the existence of customs and institutions; it makes them look for other social consequences that allow these practices’ survival and illuminate the way society works. Manifest and latent functions and dysfunctions are sociological concepts introduced by Robert K. Merton Diligio, 2000. ... Manifest and latent functions are social scientific concepts first clarified for sociology by Robert K. MertonDiligio, 2000. ... Manifest and latent functions are social scientific concepts first clarified for sociology by Robert K. MertonDiligio, 2000. ... In biology, psychology and sociology social behavior is behavior directed towards, or taking place between, members of the same species. ...

Dysfunctions can also be manifest or latent. Manifest dysfunctions of a festival include traffic jams, closed streets, piles of garbage, and a shortage of clean public toilets. Latent dysfunctions might include people missing work after the event to recover.

Functional alternatives

Functionalists believe societies must have certain characteristics in order to survive. Merton shares this view but stresses that at the same time particular institutions are not the only ones able to fulfill these functions; a wide range of functional alternatives may be able to perform the same task. This notion of functional alternative is important because it alerts sociologists to the similar functions different institutions may perform and it further reduces the tendency of functionalism to imply approval of the status quo. The article is about functionalism in sociology; for other uses, see functionalism. ... This article is about the English rock band. ...

Merton’s theory of deviance

Merton's structural-functional idea of deviance and anomie.

The term anomie, derived from Emile Durkheim, for Merton means: a discontinuity between cultural goals and the legitimate means available for reaching them.^{[citation needed]} Applied to the United States he sees the American dream as an emphasis on the goal of monetary success but without the corresponding emphasis on the legitimate avenues to march toward this goal. This leads to a considerable amount of (the Parsonian term of) deviance. This theory is commonly used in the study of criminology (specifically the strain theory). Image File history File links Mertons_social_strain_theory. ... Image File history File links Mertons_social_strain_theory. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... DEViANCE ASCII logo by Strick9. ... Anomie, in contemporary English, means a condition or malaise in individuals, characterized by an absence or diminution of standards or values. ... Anomie, in contemporary English, means a condition or malaise in individuals, characterized by an absence or diminution of standards or values. ... David Émile Durkheim (April 15, 1858 - November 15, 1917) is known as the founder of modern sociology. ... For other uses, see American Dream (disambiguation). ... DEViANCE ASCII logo by Strick9. ... Criminology is the scientific study of crime as an individual and social phenomenon. ... In criminology, the Strain Theories state that social structures within society may encourage citizens to commit crime. ...

Conformity is the attaining of societal goals by societal accepted means, while innovation is the attaining of those goals in unaccepted ways. Ritualism is the acceptance of the means but the forfeit of the goals. Retreatism is the rejection of both the means and the goals and rebellion is a combination of rejection of societal goals and means and a substitution of other goals and means. Innovation and ritualism are the pure cases of anomie as Merton defined it because in both cases there is a discontinuity between goals and means. Conformity is the act of consciously maintaining a certain degree of similarity (in clothing, manners, behaviors, etc. ... Look up rebellion in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Sociology of science

Merton carried out extensive research into the sociology of science, developing the Merton Thesis explaining some of the causes of the scientific revolution, and the Mertonian norms of science, often referred to by the acronym "Cudos". This is a set of ideals that are dictated by what Merton takes to be the goals and methods of science and are binding on scientists. They include: Sociology of science is the subfield of sociology that deals with the practice of science. ... The Merton Thesis is an argument about the nature of early experimental science proposed by Robert K. Merton. ... This article is about the period or event in history. ... Cudos is an acronym used to denote principles that should guide good scientific research. ...

• Communalism - the common ownership of scientific discoveries, according to which scientists give up intellectual property rights in exchange for recognition and esteem (Merton actually used the term Communism, but had this notion of communalism in mind, not Marxism);
• Universalism - according to which claims to truth are evaluated in terms of universal or impersonal criteria, and not on the basis of race, class, gender, religion, or nationality;
• Disinterestedness - according to which scientists are rewarded for acting in ways that outwardly appear to be selfless;
• Organized Skepticism - all ideas must be tested and are subject to rigorous, structured community scrutiny.

The CUDOS set of Mertonian scientific norms is sometimes identified as Communism, Universalism, Disinterestedness, *Originality* (novelty in research contributions), and Skepticism (instead of Organized Skepticism). This is a subsequent modification of Merton's norm set, as he did not refer to Originality in the essay that introduced the norms (The Normative Structure of Science [1942]).

He introduced many relevant concepts to the field, among them 'obliteration by incorporation' (when a concept becomes so popularized that its inventor is forgotten) and 'multiples' (theory about independent similar discoveries). Another much-discussed contribution was his identification of the Matthew effect. See also Stigler's law of eponymy. Obliteration by incorporation (OBI) is a term used in sociology of science. ... Multiple independent discoveries in science — termed multiples by Robert K. Merton — are instances in which similar discoveries are made by scientists working independently of each other. ... The term Matthew effect may refer to a number of ideas all centrally related to a parable in the Gospel of Matthew, depending on context: // Matthew effect derives its name from a line spoken by the Master in Jesuss parable of the talents in the Christian Bibles book... Stiglers Law of Eponymy is a process proposed by University of Chicago Department of Statistics Professor Stephen Stigler [1] in his 1980 publication Stigler’s law of eponymy. ...

Publications

• Social Theory and Social Structure (1949)
• The Sociology of Science (1973)
• Sociological Ambivalence (1976)
• On the Shoulders of Giants: A Shandean Postscript (1985)
• The Travels and Adventures of Serendipity: A Study in Sociological Semantics and the Sociology of Science, 2004

Social Theory and Social Structure (STSS) was a landmark publication in sociology by Robert K. Merton. ... The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman (or, more briefly, Tristram Shandy) is a novel by Laurence Sterne. ...

References

Specific

1. ^ Piotr Sztompka, "Robert K. Merton", in Blackwell Companion to Major Contemporary Social Theorists, George Ritzer (ed.), Blackwell Publishing, 2003, ISBN 1-4051-0595-X Google Print, pp. 12-33
2. ^ ^{a b c d} Columbia U. archives: Columbia University Record, September 16, 1994, Vol. 20, No. 2

General

• Craig Calhoun, "Robert K. Merton Remembered," Footnotes (an internet website), March 2003.
• Robert Merton, "George Sarton: Episodic Reflections by an Unruly Apprentice," Isis, 76 (1985): 470-486.
• Merton, R.K. (1942) "The Normative Structure of Science". In: R.K. Merton, The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1973.

Piotr Sztompka is a Polish sociologist. ... George Ritzer (born 1940) is Distinguished University Professor at the University of Maryland, College Park. ... is the 259th day of the year (260th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1994 (MCMXCIV) The year 1994 was designated as the International Year of the Family and the International Year of the Sport and the Olympic Ideal by the United Nations. ... Craig Calhoun is an American sociologist. ...

External links

• A website on Merton
• Review materials for studying Robert King Merton
• The Unanticipated Consequences of Purposive Social Action
• Merton Bibliography
• Extracts from Merton