Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between 43 and 410. The Romans referred to their province as Britannia. Prior to their invasion, Iron Age Britain already had cultural and economic links with Continental Europe, but the invaders introduced new developments in agriculture, urbanization, industry and architecture, leaving a legacy that is still apparent today. British military history is a long and varied topic, extending from the prehistoric and ancient historic period, through the Roman invasions of Julius Caesar and Claudius and subsequent Roman occupation; warfare in the Mediaeval period, including the invasions of the Saxons and the Vikings in the Early Middle Ages, the... The History of British society demonstrates innumerable changes over many centuries. ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... Events Aulus Plautius, with 4 legions, landed on Britain. ... Events Alaric I deposes Priscus Attalus as Roman Emperor. ... For other uses, see Britannia (disambiguation). ... Roman invasion of Britain: Britain was the target of invasion by forces of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire several times during its history. ... In the British Isles, the Iron Age lasted from about the 7th century BC until the Roman conquest and until the 5th century in non-Romanised parts. ... Continental Europe, also referred to as mainland Europe or simply the Continent, is the continent of Europe, explicitly excluding European islands and, at times, peninsulas. ... This article is about building architecture. ...

Historical records beyond the initial invasion are sparse, although many Roman historians mention the province in passing. Much of our knowledge of the period stems from archaeological investigations and especially epigraphic evidence. Map of the Roman Empire, with the provinces, after 120. ... For the magazine about archaeology, see Archaeology (magazine). ... The Rosetta Stone in the British Museum. ...

Chronological history

Principal sites in Roman Britain

Download high resolution version (880x1394, 179 KB)Map of Roman Britain from Atlas of European History, Earle W Dowe, London, G Bell & Sons, 1910 This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Download high resolution version (880x1394, 179 KB)Map of Roman Britain from Atlas of European History, Earle W Dowe, London, G Bell & Sons, 1910 This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ...

Early contact

Main article: Caesar's invasions of Britain

Britain was not unknown in the Classical world. As early as the 4th century BC the Greeks and Carthaginians traded for British tin:^[1] the British Isles were known to the Greeks as the Cassiterides or "tin islands".^[2] The Carthaginian sailor Himilco is said to have visited the island in the 5th century BC. But it was regarded as a place of mystery, with some writers even refusing to believe it existed.^[3] Combatants Roman Republic and Trinovantes Britons Commanders Julius Caesar, Commius, Trebonius, Mandubracius Cassivellaunus, Cingetorix, Segovax, Carvilius, Taximagulus Strength 56 - Around 10,000 legionary troops (Legio VII, Legio X), unknown numbers of cavalry forces and transports. ... This article describes the archipelago in north-Western Europe. ... Cassiterides (from the Greek for tin, i. ... Roman Carthage with former military harbor Carthage (Greek: , Latin: , from the Phoenician meaning new town; Arabic: ) refers both to an ancient city in Tunisia and to the civilization that developed within the citys sphere of influence. ... Himilco (Phoenician Chimilkât), Carthaginian navigator and explorer lived in 6th century BC. Himilco is the first known sailor from the Mediterranean Sea to reach the northwestern shores of Europe. ...

The first direct Roman contact came when the Roman general and future dictator, Julius Caesar, made two expeditions to Britain in 55 and 54 BC as an offshoot of his conquest of Gaul, believing the Britons had been helping the Gallic resistance. The first expedition, more a reconnaissance than a full invasion, gained a foothold on the coast of Kent but, undermined by storm damage to the ships and a lack of cavalry, was unable to advance further. The expedition was a military failure, but a political success: the Roman Senate declared a 20-day public holiday in Rome in honour of this unprecedented achievement.^[4] For other uses, see Julius Caesar (disambiguation). ... Gaul (Latin: ) was the name given,in ancient times, to the region of Western Europe comprising present-day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... The Kent coat of arms For other uses, see Kent (disambiguation). ... The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus) was the main governing council of both the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BC, and the Roman Empire. ...

In his second invasion Caesar took with him a substantially larger force and proceeded to coerce or invite many of the native tribes to pay tribute and give hostages in return for peace. A friendly local king, Mandubracius, was installed, and his rival, Cassivellaunus, was brought to terms. Hostages were taken, but historians disagree over whether the tribute agreed was paid by the Britons after Caesar's return to Gaul.^[5] Mandubracius or Mandubratius was a king of the Trinovantes of south-eastern Britain in the 1st century BC. // Mandubracius was the son of a Trinovantian king, named Imanuentius in some manuscripts of Julius Caesars De Bello Gallico, who was overthrown and killed by the warlord Cassivellaunus some time before... Cassivellaunus was a historical British chieftain who led the defence against Julius Caesars second expedition to Britain in 54 BC. He also appears in British legend as Cassibelanus, one of Geoffrey of Monmouths kings of Britain, and in the Mabinogion and Welsh Triads as Caswallawn, son of Beli...

Caesar had conquered no territory, but had established clients on the island and brought Britain into Rome's sphere of political influence. Augustus planned invasions in 34, 27 and 25 BC, but circumstances were never favourable,^[6] and the relationship between Britain and Rome settled into one of diplomacy and trade. Strabo, writing late in Augustus's reign, claims that taxes on trade brought in more annual revenue than any conquest could.^[7] Likewise, archaeology shows an increase in imported luxury goods in south-eastern Britain.^[8] Strabo also mentions British kings who sent embassies to Augustus, and Augustus' own Res Gestae refers to two British kings whom he received as refugees.^[9] When some of Tiberius's ships were carried to Britain in a storm during his campaigns in Germany in AD 16, they were sent back safe and sound by local rulers, telling tall tales of monsters.^[10] Cliens (plural clientes) was the term used to refer to the lesser - or obligated - role in the Ancient Roman law/social convention of clientela. ... For other persons named Octavian, see Octavian (disambiguation). ... The Greek geographer Strabo in a 16th century engraving. ... Res Gestae Divi Augusti, (Latin: The Deeds of the Divine Augustus) is the funerary inscription of the first Roman emperor, Augustus, giving a first-person record of his life and accomplishments. ... For other persons named Tiberius, see Tiberius (disambiguation). ...

Rome appears to have encouraged a balance of power in southern Britain, supporting two powerful kingdoms: the Catuvellauni, ruled by the descendants of Tasciovanus, and the Atrebates, ruled by the descendants of Commius.^[11] This policy was followed until AD 39 or 40, when Caligula received an exiled member of the Catuvellaunian dynasty and staged an invasion of Britain that collapsed in farcical circumstances before it left Gaul.^[12] When Claudius successfully invaded in 43, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, this time Verica of the Atrebates. The Catuvellaunii (meaning probably good in battle) were one of the Celtic tribes living in the British Isles, before the Roman invasion of Britain. ... Tasciovanus was a historical king of the Catuvellauni tribe before the Roman conquest of Britain. ... The Atrebates (meaning settlers) were a Belgic tribe of Gaul and Britain before the Roman conquests. ... Commius was a historical king of the Gaulish and British Atrebates tribes in the 1st century BC. When Julius Caesar conquered the Atrebates in Gaul in 57 BC he appointed Commius as king of the tribe. ... Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31, 12 – January 24, 41), more commonly known by his nickname Caligula, was the third Roman Emperor and a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, ruling from 37 to 41 . ... For other persons named Claudius, see Claudius (disambiguation). ... Verica (early 1st century AD) was a British client king of the Roman Empire in the years preceding the Claudian invasion of 43 AD. From his coinage, he appears to have been king of the Atrebates tribe and a son of Commius. ...

The Roman invasion

Main article: Roman conquest of Britain

The invasion force in 43 was led by Aulus Plautius and probably consisted of four legions, although the number is not stated in any historical source, plus a similar number of auxiliaries.^[13] Only one legion, the II Augusta, commanded by Vespasian, is directly attested to have taken part.^[14] The IX Hispana,^[15] the XIV Gemina (later styled Martia Victrix) and the XX (later styled Valeria Victrix)^[16] are attested in 60/61 during the Boudican Revolt, and are likely to have been there since the initial invasion. However, the Roman Army was flexible, with units being used and moved whenever necessary, so this is not certain. Evidence from inscriptions suggests that all or part of VIII Augusta and some of the Praetorian Guard were involved.^{[citation needed]} Britain was the target of invasion by forces of the Roman Republic and Roman Empire several times during its history. ... Aulus Plautius (lived 1st century) was the first governor of Roman Britain, serving from 43 to 47. ... The Roman Legion (from Latin , from lego, legere, legi, lectus — to collect) is a term that can apply both as a transliteration of legio (conscription or army) to the entire Roman army and also, more narrowly (and more commonly), to the heavy infantry that was the basic military unit of... Auxiliaries (from Latin: auxilia = supports) formed the standing non-citizen corps of the Roman army of the Principate (30 BC - 284 AD), alongside the citizen legions. ... Legio II Augusta, or Second Augustan Legion, was a Roman legion, levied by Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus in 43 BC, and still operative in Britannia in 4th century. ... Imperator Caesar Vespasianus Augustus (born November 17, 9, died June 23, 79), known originally as Titus Flavius Vespasianus and usually referred to in English as Vespasian, was emperor of Rome from 69 to 79. ... Legio VIIII Hispana (from Hispania) was a Roman legion probably levied by Julius Caesar before 58 BC, for his Gallic wars. ... Legio XIIII Gemina Martia Victrix was a legion of the Roman Empire, levied by Octavian after 41 BC. The cognomen Gemina (twin in Latin) suggests that the legion resulted from fusion of two previous ones, one of them possibly being the Fourteenth legion that fought in the Battle of Alesia. ... Legio XX Valeria Victrix was a Roman legion, probably raised by Augustus sometime after 31 BC. It served in Spain, Illyricum, and Germany before participating in the invasion of Britain in 43 AD, where it remained and was active until at least the beginning of the 4th century. ... Boudica and Her Daughters near Westminster Pier, London, commissioned by Prince Albert and executed by Thomas Thornycroft Boudica (also spelt Boudicca, formerly better known as Boadicea) (d. ... The Roman army was a set of land-based military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military. ... Aureus struck in 193 by Septimius Severus to celebrate VIII Augusta, one of the legions supporting his fight for purple. ... The Praetorian Guard of Augustus - 1st century. ...

The invasion was delayed by a mutiny of the troops, who were eventually persuaded by an imperial freedman to overcome their fear of crossing the Ocean and campaigning beyond the limits of the known world. They sailed in three divisions, and probably landed at Richborough in Kent, although some suggest that at least part of the invasion force landed on the south coast, in the Fishbourne area of West Sussex.^[17] Oceanus, with his wife, Tethys, ruled the seas before Poseidon. ... Richborough is a settlement just north of Sandwich on the east coast of the English county of Kent. ... The Kent coat of arms For other uses, see Kent (disambiguation). ... Fishbourne is a village in West Sussex, situated between Chichester and Bosham. ... Sussex is a historic county in South East England corresponding roughly in area to the ancient Kingdom of Sussex. ...

The Romans defeated the Catuvellauni and their allies in two battles: the first, assuming a Richborough landing, on the river Medway, the second on the Thames. One of the Catuvellaunian leaders, Togodumnus, was killed, but his brother Caratacus survived to continue resistance elsewhere. Plautius halted at the Thames and sent for Claudius, who arrived with reinforcements, including artillery and elephants, for the final march to the Catuvellaunian capital, Camulodunum (Colchester). The future emperor Vespasian subdued the south-west,^[18] Cogidubnus was set up as a friendly king of several territories,^[19] and treaties were made with tribes outside the area under direct Roman control. Combatants Roman Empire British tribes Commanders Aulus Plautius Togodumnus, Caratacus Strength 4 legions, cavalry and auxiliaries Unknown The Battle of the Medway took place in 43 on the River Medway in the lands of the Iron Age tribe of the Cantiaci, now the English county of Kent. ... Several places exist with the name Thames, and the word is also used as part of several brand and company names Most famous is the River Thames in England, on which the city of London stands Other Thames Rivers There is a Thames River in Canada There is a Thames... Togodumnus was a historical king of the British Catuvellauni tribe at the time of the Roman conquest. ... Caratacus (Brythonic *Caratācos, Greek Καράτακος; variants Latin Caractacus, Greek Καρτάκης) was a historical British chieftain of the Catuvellauni tribe, who led the British resistance to the Roman conquest. ... This article is about the town in England. ... For other places with the same name, see Colchester (disambiguation). ... Imperator Caesar Vespasianus Augustus (born November 17, 9, died June 23, 79), known originally as Titus Flavius Vespasianus and usually referred to in English as Vespasian, was emperor of Rome from 69 to 79. ... Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus (or Togidubnus) was king of the Regnenses, a southern British tribe. ...

Roman rule is established

See also: Romano-British

After capturing the south of the island, the Romans turned their attention to what is now Wales. The Silures, Ordovices and Deceangli remained implacably opposed to the invaders, and for the first few decades were the focus of Roman military attention, despite occasional minor revolts among Roman allies like the Brigantes and the Iceni. The Silures were now led by Caratacus, and he carried out an effective guerrilla campaign against the governor Publius Ostorius Scapula. Finally, in 51, Ostorius lured Caratacus into a set-piece battle and defeated him. The British leader sought refuge among the Brigantes, but their queen, Cartimandua, proved her loyalty by surrendering him to the Romans. He was brought as a captive to Rome, where a dignified speech he made during Claudius's triumph persuaded the emperor to spare his life. However, the Silures were still not pacified, and Cartimandua's ex-husband Venutius stepped into Caratacus's shoes as the most prominent leader of British resistance.^[20] Romano-British is a term used to refer to the Romanized Britons under the Roman Empire (and later the Western Roman Empire) and in the years after the Roman departure exposed to Roman culture and Christian religion. ... This article is about the country. ... The Silures were a powerful and warlike tribe of ancient Britain, occupying approximately the counties of Monmouth, Brecon and Glamorgan. ... The Ordovices were one of the Celtic tribes living in the British Islands, before the Roman invasion of Britain. ... The Deceangli or Deceangi were one of the Celtic tribes living in the British Isles, prior to the Roman invasion of Britain. ... The Brigantes were a British Celtic tribe which lived between Tyne and Humber. ... The Iceni or Eceni were a Brythonic tribe who inhabited an area of Britain corresponding roughly to the modern-day county of Norfolk between the 1st century BC and 1st century AD. The Cenimagni, who surrendered to Julius Caesar during his second expedition to Britain in 54 BC, may have... Publius Ostorius Scapula (died 52) was a Roman statesman and general. ... Cartimandua (or Cartismandua, ruled ca. ... Venutius was a 1st century king of the Brigantes in northern Britain at the time of the Roman conquest. ...

In 60-61, while governor Gaius Suetonius Paulinus was campaigning in Wales, the south-east of Britain rose in revolt under Boudica, widow of the recently-deceased king of the Iceni, Prasutagus, provoked by the seizure of the tribe's lands and the brutal treatment of the queen and her daughters. Prasutagus had left a will leaving half his kingdom to Nero in the hope that the rest would be left untouched. He was wrong. The Iceni, joined by the Trinovantes, destroyed the Roman colony at Camulodunum and routed the part of the IX legion that was sent to relieve it. Suetonius Paulinus rode to London, the rebels' next target, but concluded it could not be defended. Abandoned, it was destroyed, as was Verulamium (St Albans). Between seventy and eighty thousand people are said to have been killed in the three cities. But Suetonius regrouped with two of the three legions still available to him, chose a battlefield, and, despite being heavily outnumbered, defeated the rebels in the Battle of Watling Street. Boudica died not long afterwards, by self-administered poison or by illness.^[21] The revolt had almost persuaded the emperor Nero to withdraw from Britain altogether.^[22] Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, also spelled Paullinus, (flourished 1st century CE) was a Roman general. ... Boudica and Her Daughters near Westminster Pier, London, commissioned by Prince Albert and executed by Thomas Thornycroft Boudica (also spelt Boudicca, formerly better known as Boadicea) (d. ... For other uses, see Nero (disambiguation). ... Remains of the city walls Verulamium was the third largest city in Roman Britain. ... Combatants Roman Empire Iceni, Trinovantes, and other British tribes Commanders Gaius Suetonius Paulinus Boudica † Strength About 10,000 to 12,000 Estimated at 200,000 to 400,000 Casualties At least 400 Recorded at over 150,000 The Battle of Watling Street took place in AD 61 between an alliance... For other uses, see Nero (disambiguation). ...

There was further turmoil in 69, the "year of four emperors". As civil war raged in Rome, weak governors were unable to control the legions in Britain, and Venutius of the Brigantes seized his chance. The Romans had previously always defended Cartimandua against him, but this time were unable to. Cartimandua was evacuated, and Venutius was left in control of the north of the country. After Vespasian secured the empire, his first two appointments as governor, Quintus Petillius Cerialis and Sextus Julius Frontinus, took on the task of subduing the Brigantes and Silures respectively.^[23] The forced suicide of emperor Nero, in 68 AD, was followed by a brief period of civil war (the first Roman civil war since Antonys death in 31 BC) known as the Year of the four emperors. ... Quintus Petilius Cerialis Caesius Rufus (born around 30 AD) was a Roman general of the 1st century. ... Sextus Julius Frontinus (c. ...

The Lunt Fort near Coventry, a reconstructed Roman fort

In the following years, the Romans conquered more of the island, increasing the size of Roman Britain. The governor Gnaeus Julius Agricola, father-in-law to the historian Tacitus, conquered the Ordovices in 78. With XX Valeria Victrix, Agricola defeated the Caledonians in 84 at the Battle of Mons Graupius, in what is today northern Scotland.^[24] This marked the high tide mark of Roman territory in Britain; shortly after his victory, Agricola was recalled from Britain back to Rome, and the Romans retired to a more defensible line along the Forth-Clyde isthmus, freeing soldiers badly needed along other frontiers. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2592x1944, 3045 KB) Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (2592x1944, 3045 KB) Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1. ... The Lunt Fort is a reconstructed Roman fort. ... For other uses, see Coventry (disambiguation). ... Gnaeus Julius Agricola (July 13, 40 - August 23, 93) was a Roman general responsible for much of the Roman conquest of Britain. ... Gaius Cornelius Tacitus Publius or Gaius Cornelius Tacitus (c. ... The Ordovices were one of the Celtic tribes living in the British Islands, before the Roman invasion of Britain. ... For other uses, see number 78. ... Legio XX Valeria Victrix was a Roman legion, probably raised by Augustus sometime after 31 BC. It served in Spain, Illyricum, and Germany before participating in the invasion of Britain in 43 AD, where it remained and was active until at least the beginning of the 4th century. ... // The Caledonians (Latin: Caledonii) or Caledonian Confederacy, is a name given by historians to a group of the indigenous Picts of Scotland during the Iron Age. ... Centuries: 1st century BC - 1st century - 2nd century Decades: 0s BC - 0s - 10s - 20s - 30s - 40s - 50s - 60s - 70s - 80s - 90s - 100s Years: 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 Events Possible date of Battle of Mons Graupius (83 or 84) Pliny the Younger was sevir... The Battle of Mons Graupius took place in AD 83 or 84. ... This article is about the country. ... The Firth of Forth from Calton Hill The Forth Bridges cross the Firth Satellite photo of the Firth and the surrounding area Map of the Firth Firth of Forth (Scottish Gaelic: Linne Foirthe) is the estuary or firth of Scotlands River Forth, where it flows into the North Sea... Map of the Firth of Clyde and area The Firth of Clyde forms a large area of coastal water, sheltered from the Atlantic ocean by the Kintyre peninsula which encloses the outer firth in Argyll and Ayrshire, Scotland. ...

For much of the history of Roman Britain, a large number of soldiers were garrisoned on the island. This required that the emperor station a trusted senior man as governor of the province. As a side-effect of this, a number of future emperors served as governors or legates in this province, including Vespasian, Pertinax, and Gordian I. Imperator Caesar Vespasianus Augustus (born November 17, 9, died June 23, 79), known originally as Titus Flavius Vespasianus and usually referred to in English as Vespasian, was emperor of Rome from 69 to 79. ... Publius Helvius Pertinax (August 1, 126 - March 28, 193) was Roman emperor for a short period in 193. ... Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus (c. ...

Occupation and retreat from southern Scotland

There is no historical source describing the decades that followed Agricola's recall. Even the name of his replacement is unknown. Archaeology has shown that some Roman forts south of the Forth-Clyde isthmus were rebuilt and enlarged, although others appear to have been abandoned. Roman coins and pottery are found circulating at native settlement sites in what are now the Scottish Lowlands in the years before 100, indicating growing Romanisation. One of the most important sources of this era are the writing tablets from the fort at Vindolanda in Northumberland, mostly dating to AD 90-110. These tablets provide vivid evidence for the operation of a Roman fort at the edge of Empire, where officers' wives maintained polite society while merchants, hauliers and military personnel kept the fort operational and supplied. For the magazine about archaeology, see Archaeology (magazine). ... ... The Firth of Forth from Calton Hill The Forth Bridges cross the Firth Satellite photo of the Firth and the surrounding area Map of the Firth Firth of Forth (Scottish Gaelic: Linne Foirthe) is the estuary or firth of Scotlands River Forth, where it flows into the North Sea... Map of the Firth of Clyde and area The Firth of Clyde forms a large area of coastal water, sheltered from the Atlantic ocean by the Kintyre peninsula which encloses the outer firth in Argyll and Ayrshire, Scotland. ... The Isthmus of Panama connects North and South America. ... Lowland-Highland divide The Scottish Lowlands (a Ghalldachd, meaning roughly the non-Gaelic region, in Gaelic), although not officially a geographical area of the country, in normal usage is generally meant to include those parts of Scotland not referred to as the Highlands (or Gàidhealtachd), that is, everywhere due... Pliny the Younger advances to consulship. ... Romanization was a gradual process of cultural assimilation, in which the conquered barbarians (non-Greco-Romans) gradually adopted and largely replaced their own native culture (which in many cases were quite developed, like the culture of the Gauls or Carthage) with the culture of their conquerors - the Romans. ... Vindolanda was a Roman auxiliary fort located at Chesterholm, just south of Hadrians Wall in northern England, near the border with Scotland, guarding the Roman road from the River Tyne, to the Solway Firth, now known as the Stanegate. ... Northumberland is a county in the North East of England. ...

Around 105, however, a serious setback appears to have happened at the hands of the tribes of Scotland; several Roman forts were destroyed by fire at this time with human remains and damaged armour at Trimontium (Newstead, Scottish Borders) indicating hostilities at least at that site. There is also circumstantial evidence that auxiliary reinforcements were sent from Germany and an unnamed British war from the period is mentioned on the gravestone of a tribune on Cyrene. However, Trajan's Dacian Wars may have led to troop reductions in the area or even total withdrawal followed by slighting of the forts by the natives rather than an unrecorded military defeat. The Romans were also in the habit of destroying their own forts during an orderly withdrawal, in order to deny resources to an enemy. In either case, the frontier probably moved south to the line of the Stanegate at the Solway-Tyne isthmus around this time. Events Roman Empire Trajan starts the second expedition against Dacia. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Trimontium is the name of a Roman fort at Newstead, near Melrose, Scotland, close under the three Eildon Hills (whence the name trium montium). ... Newstead is a name related to several locatiions. ... Scottish Borders (often referred to locally as The Borders or The Borderland) is one of 35 local government unitary council areas of Scotland. ... Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honors Emperor Politics and Law Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Greek form tribounos) was a title shared by 2-3 elected magistracies and other governmental and/or (para)military offices of the Roman Republic and Empire. ... Cyrene can refer to: The USS Cyrene (AGP-13), a motor torpedo boat tender Cyrene, a figure from Greek mythology Cyrene, a Greek colony in Libya (north Africa) 133 Cyrene, an asteroid Cyrene, fictional character who is the mother of Xena in the series Xena: Warrior Princess See also: Cyrenaica... This article is about the Roman Emperor. ... Combatants Dacians Roman Empire Commanders Decebal Trajan Strength around 100,000 (based on population estimate) 70,000-80,000 Casualties Unknown Unknown The Dacian Wars (101-102, 105-106) were two short wars between the Roman Empire and Dacia during Emperor Trajans rule. ... The Stanegate, or stone road, was an important Roman road in ancient Britain. ... Map of Solway Firth. ... The Tyne looking west and upstream from the Newcastle bank towards the Gateshead Millennium Bridge The Tyne Bridge across the River Tyne between Newcastle and Gateshead. ...

A new crisis occurred at the beginning of Hadrian's reign (117), a rising in the north which was suppressed by Quintus Pompeius Falco. When Hadrian reached Britannia on his famous tour of the Roman provinces around 120, he directed an extensive defensive wall, known to posterity as Hadrian's Wall, to be built close to the line of the Stanegate frontier. Hadrian appointed Aulus Platorius Nepos as governor to undertake this work who brought VI Victrix with him from Lower Germany. Legio VI replaced the famous IX Hispana, whose disappearance has been much discussed. Archaeology indicates considerable instability in Scotland during the first half of the second century, and the shifting frontier at this time should be seen in this context. Publius Aelius Traianus Hadrianus (January 24, 76 –– July 10, 138), known as Hadrian in English, was emperor of Rome from 117 A.D. to 138 A.D., as well as a Stoic and Epicurean philosopher. ... Quintus Pompeius Falco was a Roman politician of the early 2nd century AD. He served as consul, probably in 108 and then became governor of Lower Moesia. ... Publius Aelius Traianus Hadrianus (January 24, 76 –– July 10, 138), known as Hadrian in English, was emperor of Rome from 117 A.D. to 138 A.D., as well as a Stoic and Epicurean philosopher. ... For other uses, see number 120. ... // Hadrians Wall is a stone and turf fortification built by the Roman Empire across the width of modern-day England. ... Aulus Platorius Nepos was a Roman politician of the early 2nd century AD. He served as consul in 119 and then governed Germania Inferior. ... Legio VI Victrix (Victorious) was a Roman legion founded by Octavian in 41 BC. It was the twin legion of VI Ferrata and perhaps held veterans of that legion, and some soldiers kept to the traditions of the Caesarian legion. ... The Roman province of Germania Inferior, 120 AD Germania Inferior (in English Lower Germany) was a Roman province, located along the west margin of the Rhine, on todays southern Netherlands and western Germany. ... Legio IX Hispana was a Roman legion probably levied by Julius Caesar before 58 BC, for his Gallic wars. ...

In the reign of Antoninus Pius (AD 138-161) the Hadrianic border was briefly extended north to the Forth-Clyde isthmus, where the Antonine Wall was built around 142 following the military re-occupation of the Scottish lowlands by a new governor, Quintus Lollius Urbicus. This northward extension of the empire was probably the result of attacks, maybe by the Selgovae of south-west Scotland, on the Roman buffer state of the Votadini who lived north of the Hadrianic frontier. Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus Pius (September 19, 86–March 7, 161) was Roman emperor from 138 to 161. ... The Antonine Wall, looking east, from Barr Hill between Twechar and Croy The Antonine Wall, remains of Roman fortlet, Barr Hill, near Twechar Location of Hadrians Wall and the Antonine Wall in Scotland and Northern England. ... Events Construction of the Antonine Wall began in Scotland. ... An early act of the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius was to appoint Quintus Lollius Urbicus as governor of Roman Britain in AD 138. ... The Selgovae were a Brythonic tribe in Scotland, inhabiting roughly the central Borders area. ... A buffer state is a country lying between two rival or potentially hostile greater powers, which by its sheer existence is thought to prevent conflict between them. ... The Votadini (the Wotādīnī, or Votādīnī) were a people of the Iron Age in Great Britain, and their territory was briefly part of the Roman province Britannia. ...

The first Antonine occupation of Scotland ended as a result of a further crisis in 155-157, when the Brigantes revolted. With limited options to despatch reinforcements, the Romans moved their troops south and this rising was suppressed by the governor Cnaeus Julius Verus. Within a year the Antonine Wall was re-occupied, but by 163 or 164 it was abandoned. The second occupation was probably connected with Antonius' undertakings to protect the Votadini or his pride in enlarging the empire as the retreat to the Hadrianic frontier occurred not long after his death when a more objective strategic assessment of the benefits of the Antonine Wall could be made. The Romans did not entirely withdraw from Scotland at this time however, as the large fort at Newstead was maintained along with seven smaller outposts until at least c. 180. Events Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius starts a new war against the Parthians Pope Anicetus succeeds Pope Pius I First year of Yongshou era of the Chinese Han Dynasty Births Dio Cassius, Roman historian Cao Cao, future ruler of the Kingdom of Wei Deaths July 11 - Pope Pius I Saint Polycarp... Events Births Deaths Categories: 157 ... The Brigantes were a British Celtic tribe which lived between Tyne and Humber. ... Gnaeus Julius Verus was Roman general and politician of the mid 2nd century AD. He was the legatus to Legio XXX Ulpia Victrix in Germania Inferior and after being consul c. ... Events Statius Priscus reconquers Armenia; Artaxata is ruined. ... Events Ctesiphon is captured by the Romans, but returned to the Parthians after the end of the war. ... For other uses, see number 180. ...

During the twenty year period following the reversion of the frontier to Hadrian's Wall, Rome was concerned with continental issues primarily problems in the Danube provinces. Increasing numbers of hoards of buried coins in Britain at this time indicate that peace was not entirely achieved. Sufficient Roman silver appears in Scotland to suggest more than ordinary trade and it is likely that the Romans were boosting treaty agreements with cash payments, a situation with comparators elsewhere in the empire at the time. This article is about the Danube River. ... For the software, see hoard memory allocator. ... This does not cite any references or sources. ...

In 175 a large force of Sarmatian cavalry, consisting of 5,500 men, arrived in Britannia, probably to reinforce troops fighting unrecorded uprisings. Certainly, in 180 Hadrian's Wall was breached and barbarians had killed the commanding officer or governor there in what Dio Cassius described as the most serious war of the reign of Commodus. Ulpius Marcellus was sent as replacement governor and by 184 he had won a new peace only to be faced with a mutiny from his own troops. Unhappy with Marcellus' strictness, they tried to elect a legate named Priscus as usurper emperor, he refused but Marcellus himself was lucky to leave the province alive. The Roman army in Britannia continued its insubordination, they sent a delegation of 1,500 to Rome to demand the execution of Tigidius Perrenis, a Praetorian Prefect whom they felt had earlier wronged them by posting lowly equites to legate ranks in Britannia. Commodus met the party outside Rome and agreed to have Perrenis killed, but this only made them feel more secure in their mutiny. Events Pope Eleuterus succeeds Pope Soter (approximate date) Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius defeats the Marcomanni. ... Sarmatian Cataphract Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae (the second form is mostly used by the earlier Greek writers, the other by the later Greeks and the Romans) were a people whom Herodotus (4. ... Dio Cassius Cocceianus (c. ... Marcus Aurelius Commodus Antoninus (August 31, 161 – December 31, 192) was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 180 to 192. ... Ulpius Marcellus was a Roman governor and general of the later 2nd century AD. He was sent by the Emperor Commodus to govern Roman Britain and suppress a serious revolt in AD 180. ... Events The Yellow Turban Rebellion breaks out in China. ... Caerellius Priscus was a governor of Roman Britain in the late 170s. ... Nickname: Motto: SPQR: Senatus Populusque Romanus Location of the city of Rome (yellow) within the Province of Rome (red) and region of Lazio (grey) Coordinates: Region Lazio Province Province of Rome Founded 21 April 753 BC Government  - Mayor Walter Veltroni Area  - City 1,285 km²  (580 sq mi)  - Urban 5... Praetorian prefect (Latin Praefectus praetorio) was the constant title of a high office in the Roman state that changed fundamentally in nature. ... An Equestrian (Latin eques, plural equites) was a member of one of the two upper social classes in the Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. ...

The future emperor, Pertinax was sent to Britannia to restore order and was initially successful in regaining control. A riot broke out amongst the troops however, in which Pertinax was attacked and left for dead, and he asked to be recalled to Rome, briefly succeeding Commodus in 192. Publius Helvius Pertinax (August 1, 126 - March 28, 193) was Roman emperor for a short period in 193. ... Commodus assassinated by a wrestler named Narcissus at the behest of Commodus concubine, chamberlain and Praetorian prefect. ...

The third century

The death of Commodus put into motion a series of events which eventually led to civil war. Following the short reign of Pertinax, several rivals for the throne emerged, including Septimius Severus and Clodius Albinus. The latter was the new governor of Britain, and had seemingly won the natives over after their earlier rebellions; he also controlled three legions, making him a potentially significant claimant to the purple. His sometime rival Severus promised him the title of Caesar in return for Albinus' support against Pescennius Niger in the east. Once Niger was neutralised however, Severus turned on his ally in Britain—though it is likely that Albinus saw that he would be the next target, and was already preparing for war. Marcus Aurelius Commodus Antoninus (August 31, 161 – December 31, 192) was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 180 to 192. ... Publius Helvius Pertinax (August 1, 126 - March 28, 193) was Roman emperor for a short period in 193. ... Lucius Septimius Severus (b. ... Clodius Albinus. ... Pescennius Niger as emperor. ...

Albinus crossed to Gaul in 195 where the provinces were also sympathetic to him and set up at Lugdunum. Severus arrived in February 196 and the ensuing battle was decisive. Although Albinus came close to victory, Severus' reinforcements won the day, and the British governor found it expedient to commit suicide. Severus soon purged Albinus' sympathisers, perhaps as well confiscating large tracts of land in Britain in punishment. Gaul (Latin: ) was the name given,in ancient times, to the region of Western Europe comprising present-day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... Colonia Copia Claudia Augusta Lugdunum (modern: Lyon) was an important Roman city in Gaul. ...

Albinus demonstrated the two major political problems posed by Roman Britain. First, in order to maintain its security it had three legions stationed there. These would provide an ambitious man with weak loyalties a powerful base for rebellion, as it had for Albinus. Second, deploying the legions elsewhere would strip the island of its garrison, with the result that Britain was defenceless to invaders.

Traditionally, the view has been that northern Britain descended into anarchy during Albinus' absence. Certainly Cassius Dio records that the new governor, Virius Lupus was obliged to buy peace from the fractious northern tribe known as the Maeatae, however more recent work suggests that it is more likely that he left a reasonable force behind to protect the frontier and that the level of chaos was not as great as earlier thought. Even so, a succession of militarily distinguished governors were appointed to the province and Lucius Alfenus Senecio's report back to Rome in 207 described barbarians "rebelling, over-running the land, taking loot and creating destruction". Alfenus requested either reinforcements or an Imperial expedition and Severus chose the latter option, despite now being 62 years old. Cassius Dio Cocceianus (ca. ... Virius Lupus was a Roman soldier and politician of the late second and early third century AD. He served as a legate of one of the German provinces and supported Septimus Severus during the civil war that followed the murder of Pertinax. ... The Maeatae were a confederation of tribes who lived probably between Hadrians Wall and the Antonine Wall or possibly just on either side of Hadrians Wall in Roman Britain. ... Lucius Alfenus Senecio was a Roman figure of the late second and early third centuries AD. He served as consul and as governor of Syria in 200. ...

Archaeological evidence shows that Alfenus had been rebuilding the defences of Hadrian's Wall and the forts beyond it and Severus' arrival in Britain prompted the rebellious tribes to immediately sue for peace. The emperor had not come all that way to leave without a victory however and it is likely that he wished to provide his teenage sons Caracalla and Geta with first hand experience of controlling and administering a barbarian province. // Hadrians Wall is a stone and turf fortification built by the Roman Empire across the width of modern-day England. ... Caracalla (April 4, 186 – April 8, 217) was Roman Emperor from 211 – 217. ... Publius Septimius Geta (March 7, 189–December 211), was a Roman Emperor co-ruling with his father Septimius Severus and his older brother Caracalla from 209 to his death. ...

An expedition led by Severus and probably numbering around 20,000 troops, moved north in 208 or 209, crossing the wall and passing through eastern Scotland in a route similar to that used by Agricola. Harried by guerrilla raids by the natives and slowed by an unforgiving terrain, Severus was unable to meet the Caledonians on a battlefield. The campaign pushed northwards as far as the River Tay and peace treaties were signed with the Caledonians who seem to have suffered similar losses to the Romans. By 210, Severus had returned to York with the frontier set at Hadrian's Wall and assumed the title Britannicus. Almost immediately another northern tribe, the Maeatae rebelled. Caracella left with a punitive expedition but by the next year his ailing father had died and he and his brother left the province to press their claim for the throne. The River Tay looking eastwards from Perth The River Tay, in terms of flow (193 kilometres or 120 miles), is the longest river in Scotland. ... The Maeatae were a confederation of tribes who lived probably between Hadrians Wall and the Antonine Wall or possibly just on either side of Hadrians Wall in Roman Britain. ...

As one of his last acts, Septimius Severus tried to solve the problem of powerful and rebellious governors in Britain by dividing the existing province into Upper Britain and Lower Britain. Although this kept the potential for rebellion in check for almost a century, it was not permanent. Historical sources provide little information on the following decades, a period often called the Long Peace. Even so the number of hoards found in the period rises, suggesting unrest and a string of forts were built along the coast of southern Britain to control piracy, over the next hundred years they expanded in number, becoming the Saxon Shore Forts. Lucius Septimius Severus (b. ... Britannia Superior (Upper Britain) was one of the provinces of Roman Britain created c. ... Britannia Inferior (Lower Britain) was one of the regions of Roman Britain created in the early third century AD by the Roman Emperor Septimus Severus. ... For the software, see hoard memory allocator. ... The Saxon Shore is the collective name given to a series of fortifications built along the south-east coast of what is now England, during the latter years of the Roman occupation of Britain. ...

During the middle of the third century the Roman empire was convulsed by barbarian invasions, rebellions and new imperial pretenders. Britannia apparently avoided these troubles, although increasing inflation had its economic effect. In 259, a so-called Gallic Empire was established when Postumus rebelled against Gallienus. Britannia was part of this until 274 when Aurelian reunited the empire. Valerian (david neiman was here) captured by the Alamanni (possibly 260) The Franks who invaded the Roman Empire near Cologne in 257, reach Tarraco in Hispania Pope Dionysius elected. ... The Gallic Empire (in Latin, imperium Galliarum) is the modern name for the independent realm that lived a brief existence during the Roman Empires Crisis of the Third Century, from 260 to 274. ... Marcus Cassianius Latinius Postumus was emperor of the Gallic Empire from AD 259 to 268. ... Gallienus depicted on a lead seal Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus (218-268) ruled the Roman Empire as co-emperor with his father Valerian from 253 to 260, and then as the sole Roman Emperor from 260 to 268. ... Events The Gallic Empire (Gaul and Britain) is reconquered by Roman Emperor Aurelian With the conquests of the Palmyran Empire (272) and the Gallic Empire, the Roman Empire is united again Births Deaths Pope Felix I Cao Fang, emperor of the Kingdom of Wei Categories: 274 ... Lucius Domitius Aurelianus[1] (September 9, 214–September 275), known in English as Aurelian, Roman Emperor (270–275), was the second of several highly successful soldier-emperors who helped the Roman Empire regain its power during the latter part of the third century and the beginning of the fourth. ...

In the late 270s a half-Brythonic usurper named Bononus rebelled to avoid the repercussions of letting his fleet be burnt by barbarians at Cologne. He was quickly crushed by Probus, but soon afterwards an unnamed governor in Britannia also attempted an uprising. Irregular troops of Vandals and Burgundians were sent across the Channel by Probus to put down the uprising, perhaps in 278. , For other uses, see Cologne (disambiguation). ... This antoninianus minted under Probus (c. ... The Vandals were an East Germanic tribe that entered the late Roman Empire during the 5th century and created a state in North Africa, centered on the city of Carthage. ... This article includes a list of works cited or a list of external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ... Events Births Deaths Categories: 278 ...

The last of the string of rebellions to affect Britannia was that of Carausius and his successor Allectus. Carausius was a naval commander, probably in the English Channel. He was accused of keeping pirate booty for himself, and his execution was ordered by the Emperor Maximian. He then in 286 set himself up as emperor in Britain and northern Gaul, and remained in power whilst Maximian dealt with uprisings elsewhere. In 288, an invasion failed to unseat the usurper. An uneasy peace ensued, during which Carausius issued coins proclaiming his legitimacy and inviting official recognition. Carausius coin from Londinium mint. ... Allectus (died 296) was a Roman emperor in Britain (293–296). ... Satellite view of the English Channel The English Channel (French: , the sleeve) is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that separates the island of Great Britain from northern France and joins the North Sea to the Atlantic. ... Maximian Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Herculius (c. ...

In 293 Constantius Chlorus launched a second offensive, besieging the rebel's port at Boulogne and cutting it off from naval assistance. After the town fell, Constantius tackled Carausius' Frankish allies. Subsequently the usurper was murdered by his treasurer, Allectus. Allectus' brief reign was brought to an end when Asclepiodotus landed near Southampton and defeated him in a land battle.^[25] Events March 1 - Diocletian and Maximian appoint Constantius Chlorus and Galerius as Caesars. ... On the reverse of this argenteus struck in Antioch under Constantius Chlorus, the tetrarcs are sacrificing to celebrate a victory against the Sarmatians. ... Boulogne-sur-Mer is a city and commune in northern France, in the Pas-de-Calais département of which it is a sous-préfecture. ... This article is about the Frankish people and society. ... Allectus (died 296) was a Roman emperor in Britain (293–296). ... Asclepiodotus (Welsh language: Alyssglapitwlws) was a Roman praetorian prefect who re-established Roman rule in Britain following the illegal rules of Carausius and Allectus. ... For other uses, see Southampton (disambiguation). ...

Constantius himself arrived in London to receive the victory and chose to divide the province further, into four provinces:

• Maxima Caesariensis (based on London): from Upper Britannia
• Britannia Prima: from Upper Britannia
• Flavia Caesariensis: from Lower Britannia
• Britannia Secunda: from Lower Britannia

These four provinces were part of Diocletian's Tetrarchy reform in 293: Britannia became one of the four dioceses—governed by a vicarius—of the prætorian prefecture Galliae ('the Gauls', also comprising the provinces of Gaul, Germania and Hispania), after the abolition of the imperial tetrarchs under the Western Emperor (in Rome itself, later Ravenna). Maxima Caesariensis was the name of one of the four provinces of Roman Britain, as named in the Verona List, dated AD 312 - 314. ... Britannia Prima was one of the provinces of Roman Britain created c. ... Flavia Caesariensis was one of the provinces of Roman Britain. ... Britannia Secunda was one of the provinces of Roman Britain created c. ... Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (c. ... The Tetrarchs, a porphyry sculpture sacked from a Byzantine palace in 1204, Treasury of St. ... Gaul (Latin: ) was the name given,in ancient times, to the region of Western Europe comprising present-day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... Gaul (Latin: ) was the name given,in ancient times, to the region of Western Europe comprising present-day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... Map of the Roman Empire and the free Germania, Magna Germania, in the early 2nd century For other uses, see Germania (disambiguation). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Iberian Peninsula. ... Province of Ravenna Ravenna is a city and comune in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy. ...

The fourth century

Constantius Chlorus returned to Britain in 306, aiming to invade northern Britain. The province's defences had been rebuilt in the preceding years and, although his health was poor, Constantius wished to penetrate into enemy territory and win a further victory. Little is known of his campaigns and there is little archaeological evidence for them. From fragmentary historical sources it seems he reached the far north of Britain and won a great battle in early summer of that year before returning south to York.

Constantius remained in Britain for the rest of the time he was part of the Tetrarchy, dying on 25th July 306. His son, Constantine I had managed to be by his side at that moment, and assumed his duties in Britain. Unlike the earlier usurper Albinus, he was able to successfully use his base in Britain as a starting point on his march to the imperial throne. The Tetrarchs, a porphyry sculpture sacked from a Byzantine palace in 1204, Treasury of St. ... is the 206th day of the year (207th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Events July 25 - Constantine I proclaimed Roman Emperor by his troops. ... Head of Constantines colossal statue at Musei Capitolini Gaius Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus[1] (February 27, 272–May 22, 337), commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or (among Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic[2] Christians) Saint Constantine, was a Roman Emperor, proclaimed Augustus by his troops on...

For a few years, the British provinces were loyal to the usurper Magnentius, who succeeded Constans following his death. Following his defeat and death in the Battle of Mons Seleucus in 353, Constantius II dispatched his chief imperial notary Paul "Catena" to Britain to hunt down Magnentius' supporters. Paul's investigations deteriorated into a witch hunt, which forced the vicarius Flavius Martinus to intervene. When Paul instead suspected Martinus of treason, the vicarius found himself forced to physically attack Paul with a sword with the aim of assassinating him, but at the end committed suicide. Magnentius (303–August 11, 353) was a Roman usurper (January 18, 350 – August 11, 353). ... Flavius Julius Constans (320 - 350), was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 337 to 350. ... The Battle of Mons Seleucus was fought in 353 between the forces of Constantius II and the forces of the usurper Magnentius. ... Flavius Iulius Constantius, known in English as Constantius II, (7 August 317 - 3 November 361) was a Roman Emperor (337 - 361) of the Constantinian dynasty. ... Paulus was the name of an imperial notary, or senior civil servant, whose cruelty was infamous throughout the Roman and medieval world. ... 1533 account of the execution of a witch charged with burning the town of Schiltach in 1531. ... Flavius Martinus was a vicarius of Roman Britain c. ... Jack Ruby murdered the assassin, Lee Harvey Oswald, in a very public manner. ... For other uses, see Suicide (disambiguation). ...

In the 4th century, Britain also saw increasing attacks from the Saxons in the east, and the Irish in the west. A series of forts was built, starting around 280, to defend the coasts, but these preparations were not enough when a general assault of Saxons, Irish and Attacotti, combined with apparent dissension in the garrison on Hadrian's Wall, left Roman Britain prostrate in 367. This crisis, sometimes called the Great Conspiracy, was settled by Count Theodosius with a string of military and civil reforms. This article does not cite its references or sources. ... The name Attacotti (also Atecotti, A(t)ticotti, Ategutti) appears in several late Roman texts. ... The Great Conspiracy is a term given to a yearlong war that occurred in Roman Britain near the end of the Roman occupation of the island. ... Flavius Theodosius was a senior military officer serving in the Western Roman Empire. ...

Another usurper, Magnus Maximus, raised the standard of revolt in Segontium in 383, and crossed the Channel. Maximus held much of the western empire, and fought a successful campaign against the Picts and Scots around 384. His continental exploits required troops from Britain, and it appears that forts at Chester and elsewhere were abandoned at this period, triggering raids and settlement in north Wales by the Irish. His rule was ended in 388, but not all of the British troops may have returned: the Empire's military resources were struggling after the catastrophic Battle of Adrianople in 378. Around 396, there were increasing barbarian incursions in Britain, and an expedition, possibly led by Stilicho, brought naval action against the raiders. It seems peace was restored by 399, although it is likely that no further garrisoning was ordered, and indeed by 401 more troops were withdrawn to assist in the war against Alaric I. Magnus Maximus. ... Segontium is a Roman auxiliary fort, located on the outskirts of Caernarfon in north Wales. ... Satellite view of the English Channel The English Channel (French: , the sleeve) is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that separates the island of Great Britain from northern France and joins the North Sea to the Atlantic. ... A replica of the Hilton of Cadboll Stone. ... Scoti or Scotti (Old Irish Scot, modern Scottish Gaelic Sgaothaich) was the generic name given by the Romans to Gaelic raiders from Ireland. ... Forum of Theodosius I built in Constantinople. ... For other uses, see Battle of Adrianople (disambiguation). ... Stilicho (right) with his wife Serena and son Eucherius Flavius Stilicho (occasionally written as Stilico) (ca. ... An 1894 photogravure of Alaric I taken from a painting by Ludwig Thiersch. ...

The end of Roman rule

Main article: Roman departure from Britain

Roman Britain in the year 410

The traditional view of historians, informed by the work of Michael Rostovtzeff, was of a widespread economic decline at this time. However, consistent archaeological evidence has told another story, and the accepted view is undergoing re-evaluation. The destruction of many sites is now believed to be much later than had formerly been thought. Many buildings changed use, but were not destroyed. There were growing barbarian attacks, but these were focused on vulnerable rural settlements rather than towns. Some villas such as Great Casterton in Rutland and Hucclecote in Gloucestershire had new mosaic floors laid around this time, suggesting that economic problems may have been limited and patchy, although many suffered some decay before being abandoned in the fifth century; the story of Saint Patrick indicates that villas were still occupied until at least 430. New buildings were still going up in this period in Verulamium and Cirencester. Some urban centres, for example Canterbury, Cirencester, Wroxeter, Winchester and Gloucester, remained active during the fifth and sixth centuries, surrounded by large farming estates. The Roman departure from Britain was nearly completed by 400. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1111x1497, 369 KB) Summary Map of the isle Great Brittain in the year 410. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1111x1497, 369 KB) Summary Map of the isle Great Brittain in the year 410. ... Mikhail Ivanovich Rostovtzeff, or Rostovtsev (October 29, 1870-October 20, 1952) was one of the 20th centurys foremost authorities on ancient Greek and Roman history. ... Great Casterton is a village in the county of Rutland in the East Midlands of England. ... Oakham Castle Rutland is traditionally Englands smallest county and is bounded on the west and north by Leicestershire, northeast by Lincolnshire, and southeast by Northamptonshire. ... Hucclecote is a village in Gloucestershire, England situated on the old Roman road connecting Gloucester with Barnwood, Brockworth and Cirencester. ... Gloucestershire (pronounced ; GLOSS-ter-sher) is a county in South West England. ... For information about the holiday, see: Saint Patricks Day Saint Patrick (Latin: [2], Irish: Naomh Pádraig) was a Christian missionary and is the patron saint of Ireland along with Brigid of Kildare and Columba. ... Remains of the city walls Verulamium was the third largest city in Roman Britain. ... Cirencester is a market town in Gloucestershire, England, 93 miles (150 km) west northwest of London. ... Canterbury is a cathedral city in east Kent in South East England and is the seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Primate of All England, head of the Church of England and of the worldwide Anglican Communion. ... Cirencester is a market town in Gloucestershire, England, 93 miles (150 km) west northwest of London. ... Wroxeter is a village in the county of Shropshire, England, on the east bank of the River Severn, at grid reference SJ563082. ... Winchester Cathedral as seen from the Cathedral Close Arms of Winchester City Council Winchester is a city in southern England, and the administrative capital of the county of Hampshire, with a population of around 35,000. ... Gloucester (pronounced ) is a city and district in the English county of Gloucestershire, close to the Welsh border. ...

Urban life had generally grown less intense by the fourth quarter of the fourth century, and coins minted between 378 and 388 are very rare, indicating a likely combination of economic decline, diminishing numbers of troops, and problems with the payment of soldiers and officials. Coinage circulation increased during the 390s, although it never attained the levels of earlier decades. Copper coins are very rare after 402, although minted silver and gold coins from hoards indicate they were still present in the province even if they were not being spent. By 407 there were no new Roman coins going into circulation and by 430 it is likely that coinage as a medium of exchange had been abandoned. Pottery mass production probably ended a decade or two previously; the rich continued to use metal and glass vessels, while the poor probably adopted leather or wooden ones. This article is about monetary coins. ...

Sub-Roman Britain

Main article: Sub-Roman Britain

Britain came under increasing pressure from barbarian attack on all sides towards the end of the 4th century, and troops were too few to mount an effective defence. The army rebelled and, after elevating two disappointing usurpers, chose a soldier, Constantine III, to become Emperor in 407. He soon crossed to Gaul with an army, to be defeated by Honorius; it is unclear how many troops remained or ever returned, nor whether a commander-in-chief in Britain was ever reappointed. A Saxon incursion in 408 was apparently repelled by the Britons themselves, and in 409 Zosimus records that the natives expelled the Roman civilian administration (although Zosimus may be referring to the Bacaudic rebellion of the Breton inhabitants of Armorica since he describes how, in the aftermath of the revolt, all of Armorica and the rest of Gaul followed the example of the Brettaniai). A later appeal for help by the British communities was rejected by the emperor Honorius in 410. This apparent contradiction has been explained by EA Thompson as a peasant revolt against the landowning classes, with the latter group asking for Roman help; an uprising certainly occurred in Gaul at the time. With the higher levels of the military and civil government gone, administration and justice fell to municipal authorities, and small warlords gradually emerged all over Britain, still aspiring to Roman ideals and conventions. Sub-Roman Britain is a term derived from an archaeologists label for the material culture of Britain in Late Antiquity. ... Roman coin, with Constantine III portrayed on its face Constantine III (died 411 by September 18) was a Roman general who declared himself Western Roman Emperor in 407, abdicating in 411 (and being killed soon after). ... See: Flavius Augustus Honorius, western Roman emperor 395-423 Saint Honorius, archbishop of Canterbury 627-655 Pope Honorius I, pope 625-638 Pope Honorius II, pope 1124-1130 Pope Honorius III, pope 1216-1227 Pope Honorius IV, pope 1285-1287 Antipope Honorius II, 1061-1064 This is a disambiguation page... For the pope of this name see Pope Zosimus Zosimus, Greek historical writer, nourished at Constantinople during the second half of the 5th century A.D. According to Photius, he was a count, and held the office of advocate of the imperial treasury. ... Bronze coin bearing the profile of Honorius Flavius Augustus Honorius (September 9, 384–August 15, 423) was Emperor of the Western Roman Empire from 395 until his death. ...

By tradition, the pagan Saxons were invited by Vortigern to assist in fighting the Picts and Irish, though archaeology has suggested some official settlement as landed mercenaries as early as the third century. Germanic migration into Roman Britannia may well have begun much earlier even than that. There is recorded evidence, for example, of Germanic auxiliaries being brought to Britain in the first and second centuries to support the legions. The new arrivals rebelled, plunging the country into a series of wars that eventually led to the Saxon occupation of Lowland Britain by 600. Around this time many Britons fled to Brittany (hence its name). Similar orders were sent out in the 490s but met with no response. A significant date in sub-Roman Britain is the famous Groans of the Britons, an unanswered appeal to Aëtius, leading general of the western Empire, for assistance against Saxon invasion in 446; another is the Battle of Dyrham in 577, after which the significant cities of Bath, Cirencester and Gloucester fell and the Saxons reached the western sea. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Historical province of Brittany, showing the main areas with their name in Breton language The traditional flag of Brittany (the Gwenn-ha-du), formerly a Breton nationalist symbol but today used as a general civic flag in the region. ... The Groans of the Britons (Latin: gemitus Britannorum) is the name of the final appeal made by the post-Roman population of Britain for assistance against foreign invasion. ... Flavius Aëtius or simply Aetius, ( 396–454), was a Roman general of the closing period of the Western Roman Empire. ... The Battle of Deorham occurred in 577 between the West Saxons and the Celts. ...

Most scholars reject the historicity of the later legends of King Arthur, which seem to be set in this period, but some such as John Morris see it as evidence behind which may lie a plausible grain of truth. For other uses, see Legend (disambiguation). ... A bronze Arthur in plate armour with visor raised and with jousting shield wearing Kastenbrust armour (early 15th century) by Peter Vischer, typical of later anachronistic depictions of Arthur. ... Dr. John Morris was the late 20th century Senior Lecturer in Ancient History at University College, London. ...

Themes

Trade and industry

For a history of mining during Roman times, see Mining in Roman Britain Mining was one of the most prosperous activities in Roman Britain. ...

By the time of the Roman occupation, Britain's tin exports to the Mediterranean had been largely eclipsed by the more convenient supply from Iberia. Gold, iron, lead, silver, jet, marble and pearls however were all exploited by the Romans in Britain along with more everyday commodities such as hunting dogs, animal skins, timber, wool and slaves. Foreign investment created a vigorous domestic market and imports were often of exotic Continental items such as fine pottery, olive oil, lavastone querns, glassware, garum and fruit. General Name, Symbol, Number tin, Sn, 50 Chemical series poor metals Group, Period, Block 14, 5, p Appearance silvery lustrous gray Standard atomic weight 118. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Iberian Peninsula. ... GOLD refers to one of the following: GOLD (IEEE) is an IEEE program designed to garner more student members at the university level (Graduates of the Last Decade). ... For other uses, see Iron (disambiguation). ... For Pb as an abbreviation, see PB. General Name, Symbol, Number lead, Pb, 82 Chemical series Post-transition metals or poor metals Group, Period, Block 14, 6, p Appearance bluish gray Standard atomic weight 207. ... This article is about the chemical element. ... A sample of jet Jet is a geological material that is not considered a mineral in the true sense of the word, but rather, a mineraloid derived from decaying wood under extreme pressure, thus organic in origin. ... For other uses, see Marble (disambiguation). ... Freshadama grade cultured freshwater pearls. ... Quern-stones are a pair of stone tools for hand grinding a wide variety of materials. ... Garum is a type of fish sauce condiment popular in Ancient Roman society. ...

Mineral extraction sites such as the Dolaucothi gold mine, the Wealden ironworking zone and the lead and silver mines of the Mendip Hills seem to have been private enterprises leased from the government for a fee. Although mining had long been practised in Britain, the Romans introduced new technical knowledge and large-scale industrial production to revolutionise the industry. Many prospecting areas were in dangerous, upland country, and, although mineral exploitation was presumably one of the main reasons for the Roman invasion, it had to wait until these areas were subdued. The Dolaucothi Gold Mines (grid reference SN662399), also known as the Ogofau Gold Mine, are a Roman deep mine located in the valley of the River Cothi, near Pumsaint, Carmarthenshire, Wales. ... A weald once meant a dense forest, especially the famous great wood once stretching far beyond the ancient counties of Sussex and Kent, England, where this country of smaller woods is still called the Weald. ... The Mendip Hills (commonly called The Mendips) are a range of limestone hills (karst) situated to the south of Bristol and Bath in north Somerset, England. ...

Although Roman designs were most popular, rural craftsmen still produced items derived from the Iron Age La Tène artistic traditions. Local pottery rarely attained the standards of the Gaulish industries although the Castor ware of the Nene Valley was able to withstand comparison with the imports. Most native pottery was unsophisticated however and intended only for local markets. Iron Age Axe found on Gotland This article is about the archaeological period known as the Iron Age, for the mythological Iron Age see Iron Age (mythology). ... The La Tène culture was an Iron Age culture named after the archaeological site of La Tène on the north side of Lake Neuchatel in Switzerland, where a rich trove of artifacts was discovered by Hansli Kopp in 1857. ... Gaul (Latin: ) was the name given,in ancient times, to the region of Western Europe comprising present-day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... The River Nene is a river in the east of England. ...

By the third century, Britain's economy was diverse and well-established, with commerce extending into the non-Romanised north. The design of Hadrian's Wall especially catered to the need for customs inspections of merchants' goods.

Provincial government

Under the Roman Empire, administration of peaceful provinces was ultimately the remit of the Senate but those like Britain that required permanent garrisons of troops were placed under the Emperor's control. On the ground however imperial provinces were run by resident governors who were former senators who had held the consulship. These men were carefully selected often having strong records of military success and administrative ability. In Britain, a governor's role was primarily military but numerous other tasks were also his responsibility such as maintaining diplomatic relations with local client kings, building roads, ensuring the public courier system functioned, supervising the civitates and acting as a judge in important legal cases. When not campaigning he would travel the province hearing complaints and recruiting new troops. The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus) was the main governing council of both the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BC, and the Roman Empire. ... A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief adminstator of Roman law throughout one or more of Ancient Romes many provinces. ... This article is about the highest office of the Roman Republic. ... In the history of the Roman empire, civitas (pl. ...

To assist him in legal matters he had an adviser, the legatus iuridicus, and those in Britain appear to have been distinguished lawyers perhaps because of the challenge of incorporating tribes into the imperial system and devising a workable method of taxing them. Financial administration was dealt with by a procurator with junior posts for each tax-raising power. Each legion in Britain had a commander who answered to the governor and in time of war probably directly ruled troublesome districts. Each of these commands carried a tour of duty of two to three years in different provinces. Below these posts was a network of administrative managers covering intelligence gathering, sending reports to Rome, organising military supplies and dealing with prisoners. A staff of seconded soldiers provided clerical services.

Colchester was probably the earliest capital of Roman Britain but it was soon eclipsed by London with its strong mercantile connections.

Provincial subdivisions

For other uses, see Britannia (disambiguation). ... This article is about the town in England. ... London has a recorded history that goes back over 2,000 years. ... Britannia Inferior (Lower Britain) was one of the regions of Roman Britain created in the early third century AD by the Roman Emperor Septimus Severus. ... York is a city in Yorkshire, in the North East of England. ... Britannia Superior (Upper Britain) was one of the provinces of Roman Britain created c. ... London has a recorded history that goes back over 2,000 years. ... Flavia Caesariensis was one of the provinces of Roman Britain. ... Events March 1 - Diocletian and Maximian appoint Constantius Chlorus and Galerius as Caesars. ... Events Alaric I deposes Priscus Attalus as Roman Emperor. ... Lincoln (pronounced //) is a cathedral city and county town of Lincolnshire, England. ... Britannia Secunda was one of the provinces of Roman Britain created c. ... Events March 1 - Diocletian and Maximian appoint Constantius Chlorus and Galerius as Caesars. ... Events Alaric I deposes Priscus Attalus as Roman Emperor. ... York is a city in Yorkshire, in the North East of England. ... Maxima Caesariensis was the name of one of the four provinces of Roman Britain, as named in the Verona List, dated AD 312 - 314. ... Events March 1 - Diocletian and Maximian appoint Constantius Chlorus and Galerius as Caesars. ... Events Alaric I deposes Priscus Attalus as Roman Emperor. ... London has a recorded history that goes back over 2,000 years. ... Britannia Prima was one of the provinces of Roman Britain created c. ... Events March 1 - Diocletian and Maximian appoint Constantius Chlorus and Galerius as Caesars. ... Events Alaric I deposes Priscus Attalus as Roman Emperor. ... Cirencester is a market town in Gloucestershire, England, 93 miles (150 km) west northwest of London. ...

Town and country

During their occupation of Britain the Romans founded a number of important settlements, many of which still survive.

Cities and towns which have Roman origins, or were extensively developed by them, include: (with their Latin names in brackets)

• Alcester - (Aluana)
• Bath - (Aquae Sulis)
• Caerleon - (Isca Augusta)
• Caerwent - (Venta Silurum)
• Canterbury - (Durovernum Cantiacorum)
• Carmarthen - (Moridunum)
• Colchester - (Camulodunum)
• Corbridge - (Coria)
• Chichester - (Noviomagus Regnorum. Noviomagus means New Market and is also the Roman place name of a town in the Netherlands, now called Nijmegen)
• Chester - (Deva Victrix)
• Cirencester - (Corinium)
• Dover - (Portus Dubris)
• Dorchester - (Durnovaria)
• Exeter - (Isca Dumnoniorum)
• Gloucester - (Glevum)
• Leicester - (Ratae Corieltauvorum)
• London - (Londinium)
• Lincoln - (Lindum Colonia)
• Manchester - (Mamucium)
• Northwich - (Condate)
• St Albans - (Verulamium)
• Towcester - (Lactodorum)
• Whitchurch - (Mediolanum)
• Winchester - (Venta Belgarum)
• York - (Eboracum)

For a larger list, see list of Roman place names in Britain. For other places named Alcester see Alcester (disambiguation). ... Bath is a city in Somerset, England most famous for its baths fed by three hot springs. ... For alternate meanings see Bath (disambiguation) Palladian Pulteney Bridge and the weir at Bath Bath is a city in south-west England, most famous for its baths fed by three hot springs. ... , Caerleon (Welsh: ) is a suburban village and community, situated on the River Usk in the northern outskirts of the city of Newport (of which it is also a electoral ward) in south-east Wales. ... Remains of the amphitheatre Isca Augusta (or, simply, Isca) was a legionary fortress in the Roman province of Britannia. ... Caerwent is a village in Monmouthshire, Wales. ... The remains of the town wall. ... Canterbury is a cathedral city in east Kent in South East England and is the seat of the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Primate of All England, head of the Church of England and of the worldwide Anglican Communion. ... Durovernum Cantiacorum was a town in the Roman province of Britannia. ... Carmarthen (Welsh Caerfyrddin - caer fort + Myrddin Moridunum, Merlin (origin disputed)) is the county town of Carmarthenshire, Wales. ... Moridunum (or, almost certainly, Moridunum Demetarum) was a town in the Roman province of Britannia. ... For other places with the same name, see Colchester (disambiguation). ... This article is about the town in England. ... Corbridge Corbridge is a town in Northumberland, England, situated 25 km (16 miles) west of Newcastle and 6 km (4 miles) east of Hexham. ... Coria was a fort and town, located 2. ... For the larger local government district, see Chichester (district). ... , For the larger local government district, see Chester (district). ... An original section of the Roman Fortress wall is visible from the Northgate Foundations of the Roman South-East Corner Tower The Roman Quay Wall Chesters Roman Amphitheatre Roman Antefix Deva Victrix, or simply Deva, was a fort and town in the Roman province of Britannia. ... Cirencester is a market town in Gloucestershire, England, 93 miles (150 km) west northwest of London. ... Corinium Dobunnorum was a town in the Roman province of Britannia. ... , Dover is a major channel port in the English county of Kent. ... Roman Dover Dubris or Portus Dubris, Roman name for Roman-founded town of Dover, Kent, England. ... The main road through Dorchester Dorchester is a market town in south west Dorset, England, situated on the River Frome and A35 road 20 miles west of Poole and five miles north of Weymouth. ... The main road through Dorchester Dorchester is a market town in south west Dorset, England, situated on the River Frome and A35 road 20 miles west of Poole and five miles north of Weymouth. ... The city of Exeter is the county town of Devon, in the southwest of England, also known as the West Country. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this articles infobox may require cleanup. ... Gloucester (pronounced ) is a city and district in the English county of Gloucestershire, close to the Welsh border. ... Gloucester (pronounced ) is a city in south-west England, close to the Welsh border. ... Leicester city centre, looking towards the Clock Tower Leicester (pronounced ) is the largest city and unitary authority in the English East Midlands. ... Ratae Corieltauvorum was a town in the Roman province of Britannia. ... This article is about the capital of England and the United Kingdom. ... Londinium may refer to: An ancient Roman name for London (see History of London) Londinium (movie) A song by Catatonia A fictional planet in the TV show Firefly, (see moons and planets in Firefly) Londinivm, a free MMORPG. Londinium (album), an album by the band Archive This is a disambiguation... Lincoln (pronounced Lin-kun) is a cathedral city and county town of Lincolnshire, England, a bridging point over the River Witham that flows to Boston. ... Lindum Colonia (otherwise simply Lindum or, more formally, Colonia Domitiana Lindensium) was a town in the Roman province of Britannia. ... This article is about the City of Manchester in England. ... This article or section needs to be updated. ... Northwich is a wich town in Cheshire, England. ... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ... , St Albans is the main urban area of the City and District of St Albans in southern Hertfordshire, England, around 22 miles (35. ... Remains of the city walls Verulamium was the third largest city in Roman Britain. ... , Towcester (pronounced ) is a small town in Northamptonshire, England with a population of 8,856 (2001 census). ... Towcester (pronounced Toaster ) is a small town in Northamptonshire, England with a population of 8,856 (2001 census). ... Map sources for Whitchurch at grid reference SJ541415 Whitchurch is a small town in the north of the county of Shropshire. ... Mediolanum was a fort and small town in the Roman province of Britannia. ... Winchester Cathedral as seen from the Cathedral Close Arms of Winchester City Council Winchester is a city in southern England, and the administrative capital of the county of Hampshire, with a population of around 35,000. ... Principal sites in Roman Britain Venta Belgarum was a town in the Roman province of Britannia. ... York shown within England Coordinates: , Sovereign state Constituent country Region Yorkshire and the Humber Ceremonial county North Yorkshire Admin HQ York City Centre Founded 71 City Status 71 Government  - Type Unitary Authority, City  - Governing body City of York Council  - Leadership: Leader & Executive  - Executive: Liberal Democrat  - MPs: Hugh Bayley (L) John... This article is about the English city. ... A partial list of Roman place names in Great Britain. ...

Religion

The druids, the Celtic priestly caste who were believed to originate in Britain,^[26] were outlawed by Claudius,^[27] and in 61 we find them vainly defending their sacred groves from destruction by the Romans on the island of Mona (Anglesey).^[28] However, under Roman rule the Britons continued to worship native Celtic deities, such as Ancasta, but often conflated with their Roman equivalents, like Mars Rigonemetos at Nettleham. Two druids, from an 1845 publication, based on a bas-relief found at Autun, France. ... Anglesey (historically Anglesea; Welsh: , pronounced (IPA)) is a predominantly Welsh-speaking island off the northwest coast of Wales. ... Ancasta was a Celtic goddess worshipped in Roman Britain. ... , Nettleham is a large village and civil parish within the West Lindsey district of Lincolnshire, England. ...

The degree to which earlier native beliefs survived is difficult to gauge precisely. Certain northern European ritual traits such as the significance of the number 3, the importance of the head and of water sources such as springs remain in the archaeological record but the differences in the votive offerings made at Bath before and after the Roman conquest suggest that continuity was only partial. Worship of the emperor himself is widely recorded, especially at military sites. The founding of a temple to Claudius at Camulodunum was one of the impositions that led to the revolt of Boudica. A votive deposit or votive offering is an object left in a sacred place for ritual purposes. ...

It is not clear when Christianity came to Britain, or how. The earliest written evidence for Christianity in Britain is a statement by Tertullian, ca. 200, that "all the limits of the Spains, and the diverse nations of the Gauls, and the haunts of the Britons, inaccessible to the Romans, but subjugated to Christ".^[29] Archaeological evidence for Christian communities begins to appear in the 3rd and 4th centuries. Small timber churches are suggested at Lincoln and Silchester and fonts have been found at Icklingham and the Saxon Shore Fort at Richborough. The Water Newton Treasure is a hoard of Christian silver church plate from the early fourth century and the Roman villas at Lullingstone and Hinton St Mary contained Christian wall paintings and mosaics respectively. A large 4th century cemetery at Poundbury with its east-west oriented burials and lack of grave goods has been interpreted as an early Christian burial ground, although such burial rites were also becoming increasingly common in pagan contexts during the period. Saint Alban, the first British Christian martyr, is believed to have died in the early 4th century (although some date him in the mid-3rd), followed by Saints Aaron and Julius of Isca Augusta. Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      Christianity is... Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, anglicised as Tertullian, (ca. ... The Saxon Shore is the collective name given to a series of fortifications built along the south-east coast of what is now England, during the latter years of the Roman occupation of Britain. ... Richborough is a settlement just north of Sandwich on the east coast of the English county of Kent. ... Water Newton is a village on the northern border of the English county of Cambridgeshire. ... Lullingstone Roman villa is situated in northwest Kent in England. ... Hinton St Mary is a village in north Dorset, England, situated on a low limestone ridge beside the River Stour, one mile north of the market town Sturminster Newton. ... View of Poundbury, Dorset. ... In archaeology and anthropology grave goods are the items interred along with the body. ... Saint Alban was the first Christian martyr (protomartyr) in Britain. ... St. ... Remains of the amphitheatre Isca Augusta (or, simply, Isca) was a legionary fortress in the Roman province of Britannia. ...

Christianity was legalised in the Roman Empire by Constantine I in 313. The Church in Britain seems to have developed the customary diocesan system as evidenced from the records of the Council of Arles in Gaul in 314. Represented at the Council were bishops from thirty-five sees from Europe and North Africa, including three bishops from Britain: Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius. A letter found in Bath, datable to ca. 363, written in Wroxeter by a Christian man called Vinisius, warns a Christian women called Nigra of the arrival of Bilonicus, describing him as a canem Arii, an "Arian dog", indicating that the struggle between orthodoxy and heresy was present in Britain as elsewhere in the empire.^[30] One heresy, Pelagianism, originated in Britain. Theodosius I made Christianity the state religion of the Empire in 391, and by the 5th century it was well-established. For other uses, see Constantine I (disambiguation). ... Restitutus (fl. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      This article... Pelagianism is the belief that original sin did not taint human nature (which, being created from God, was divine), and that mortal will is still capable of choosing good or evil without Divine aid. ... An engraving depicting what Theodosius may have looked like, ca. ...

Oriental cults such as Mithraism also grew in popularity towards the end of the occupation. The Temple of Mithras is one example of the popularity of mystery religions amongst the rich urban classes. This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... The present day location of the temple foundations. ... Mystery religions, or simply Mysteries, were belief systems of the Graeco-Roman world full admission to which was restricted to those who had gone through certain secret initiation rites. ...

The legacy

During their occupation of Britain, the Romans built an extensive network of roads, many of whose routes are still followed today. The Romans also built water and sewage systems. Not to be confused with Romans road. ... Sewage is the mainly liquid waste containing some solids produced by humans which typically consists of washing water, faeces, urine, laundry waste and other material which goes down drains and toilets from households and industry. ...

The prestige of the empire influenced Britons' views of themselves for generations to come.

Britain is also noteworthy as having the largest European region of the former Roman Empire that currently speaks neither (as a majority language):

• A Romance language (for example, Romania, where territory was under Roman control about half as long as Britain), nor
• A language descended from the pre-Roman inhabitants (such as Greek), though Welsh exists as a minority language, with many borrowings from Latin, such as llaeth ("milk"), ffenestr ("window"). The Cornish language also survived into the early modern period and is currently undergoing some revival.

Significant Germanic migration to Britain seems to have taken place only after the coming of the Romans. The Germanic speakers came originally as auxiliary troops to support the Romans in their conquest of the Celts. For what is known of the process that introduced English, a Germanic, not Celtic language, to much of this former Roman province, see the article Anglo-Saxons. The Romance languages, also called Romanic languages, are a subfamily of the Italic languages, specifically the descendants of the Vulgar Latin dialects spoken by the common people evolving in different areas after the break-up of the Roman Empire. ... Welsh redirects here, and this article describes the Welsh language. ... A minority language is a language spoken by a minority of the population of a country. ... For the Cornish-English dialect, see West Country dialects. ... For other uses, see Anglo-Saxon. ...

References

Herodotus of Halicarnassus (Greek: Hērodotos Halikarnāsseus) was a Greek historian from Ionia who lived in the 5th century BC (ca. ... The Histories of Herodotus of Halicarnassus is considered the first work of history in Western literature. ... For other uses, see Julius Caesar (disambiguation). ... Commentarii de Bello Gallico (literally Commentaries on the Gallic War in Latin) is an account written by Julius Caesar (in the third person) about his nine years of war in Gaul. ... Dio Cassius Cocceianus (c. ... The Greek geographer Strabo in a 16th century engraving. ... For other persons named Octavian, see Octavian (disambiguation). ... Res Gestae Divi Augusti, (Latin: The Deeds of the Divine Augustus) is the funerary inscription of the first Roman emperor, Augustus, giving a first-person record of his life and accomplishments. ... For other uses, see Tacitus (disambiguation). ... The Annals, or, in Latin, Annales, is a history book by Tacitus covering the reign of the 4 Roman Emperors succeeding to Caesar Augustus. ... Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus ( 69/75 - after 130), also known as Suetonius, was a prominent Roman historian and biographer. ... The Histories (Latin: Historiae) is a book by Tacitus, written c. ... The Agricola (full Latin title: De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae) is a book by the Roman historian Tacitus, written c. ... The Histories (Latin: Historiae) is a book by Tacitus, written c. ... The Panegyrici Latini or Latin Panegyrics is a collection of twelve ancient Roman panegyric orations. ... Sextus Aurelius Victor (ca. ... Eutropius was an Ancient Roman Pagan historian who flourished in the latter half of the 4th century. ... Paulus Orosius (c. ... Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, anglicised as Tertullian, (ca. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 347th day of the year (348th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

See also

• Britannia (disambiguation)
• Roman departure from Britain
• List of Roman governors of Britain
• Roman client kingdoms in Britain
• History of Britain
• Romano-British
• Sub-Roman Britain
• Roman sites in the United Kingdom
• UK topics
• Mining in Roman Britain

Britannia may refer to: Britannia godness a national personification of the United Kingdom. ... The Roman departure from Britain was nearly completed by 400. ... This is a partial list of governors of Britain under the Roman Empire. ... The Roman client kingdoms in Britain were native tribes who chose to align themselves with the Roman Empire because they saw it as the best option for self-preservation or for protection from other hostile tribes. ... The History of Britain, until the last few hundred years, was one of struggle and competition between the separate nation-states that occupied various parts of the island of Great Britain. ... Romano-British is a term used to refer to the Romanized Britons under the Roman Empire (and later the Western Roman Empire) and in the years after the Roman departure exposed to Roman culture and Christian religion. ... Sub-Roman Britain is a term derived from an archaeologists label for the material culture of Britain in Late Antiquity. ... There are many Roman sites in the United Kingdom that are open to the public. ... This is a list of topics related to the United Kingdom. ... Mining was one of the most prosperous activities in Roman Britain. ...

External links

• Roman Britain, by Kevan W. White
• The Roman Army and Navy in Britain, by Peter Green
• Roman Britain: Guy de la Bedoyere
• Roman Britain at LacusCurtius
• Roman London - "In their own words" (PDF) By Kevin Flude
• Roman Britain - History
• The History Files The End of Roman Britain

v • d • e Roman Imperial Provinces (AD 120)

Achaea | Ægyptus | Africa | Alpes Cottiae | Alpes Maritimae | Alpes Poenninae | Arabia Petraea | Armenia Inferior | Asia | Assyria | Bithynia | Britannia | Cappadocia | Cilicia | Commagene | Corduene | Corsica et Sardinia | Creta et Cyrenaica | Cyprus | Dacia | Dalmatia | Epirus | Galatia | Gallia Aquitania | Gallia Belgica | Gallia Lugdunensis | Gallia Narbonensis | Germania Inferior | Germania Superior | Hispania Baetica | Hispania Lusitania | Hispania Tarraconensis | Italia | Iudaea | Iturea | Lycaonia | Lycia | Macedonia | Mauretania Caesariensis | Mauretania Tingitana | Moesia | Noricum | Numidia | Osroene | Pannonia | Pamphylia | Pisidia | Pontus | Raetia | Sicilia | Sophene | Syria | Taurica | Thracia

Map of the Roman Empire, with the provinces, after 120. ... The Roman Empire in 120, with the province of Achaea highlighted. ... The Roman Empire ca. ... The Roman Empire ca. ... The Roman Empire ca. ... The Roman Empire ca. ... The Roman Empire ca. ... Arabia Petraea Arabia Petraea, also called Provincia Arabia or simply Arabia, was a frontier province of the Roman Empire beginning in the second century; it consisted of the former Nabataean kingdom in modern Jordan, southern modern Syria Sinai, and northwestern Saudi Arabia. ... The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (sometimes referred to as Armenia Minor) was a state formed in the Middle Ages by Armenian refugees fleeing the Seljuk invasion of Armenia. ... Roman conquest of Asia minor The Roman province of Asia was the administrative unit added to the late Republic, a Senatorial province governed by a proconsul who was an ex-consul, an honor granted only to Asia and the other rich province of Africa. ... Roman province of Assyria, 120 CE Assyria was a province of the Roman Empire, roughly situated in modern-day northern Iraq. ... Bithynia was an ancient region, kingdom and Roman province in the northwest of Asia Minor, adjoining the Propontis, the Thracian Bosporus and the Euxine (today Black Sea). ... In ancient geography, Cappadocia or Capadocia, Turkish Kapadokya (from Persian: Katpatuka meaning the land of beautiful horses, Greek: Καππαδοκία; see also List of traditional Greek place names) was the name of the extensive inland district of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). ... Cilicia as Roman province, 120 AD In Antiquity, Cilicia (Κιλικία) was the name of a region, now known as Çukurova, and often a political unit, on the southeastern coast of Asia Minor (modern Turkey), north of Cyprus. ... Roman province of Commagene, 120 CE Commagene (Greek Kομμαγηνη Kommagênê) was a small sometime kingdom, located in modern south-central Turkey, with its capital at Samosata (modern Samsat, near the Euphrates). ... 60 BC Kingdom of Corduene Corduene (also known as Cordyene, Cardyene, Gordyene, Gordyaea, Korduene, Korchayk and Girdiyan) was an ancient region located in northern Mesopotamia, known today as Kurdistan. ... Corsica et Sardinia was an ancient Roman province including the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. ... The Roman Empire ca. ... The provinces of the Roman Empire in 120, with Dacia highlighted. ... Dalmatia province, Roman Empire Roman Dalmatia and surrounding areas Dalmatia was an ancient Roman province. ... Epirus, spanning Greece and Albania. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Gallia Aquitania, a province of The Roman Empire Gallia Aquitania, in ancient geography, was a province of the Roman Empire, located in present-day southwest France and bordered by the provinces of Gallia Lugdunensis, Gallia Narbonensis, and Hispania Tarraconensis. ... The Roman Province of Gallia Belgica in 58 BCE The Roman Province of Gallia Belgica around 120 CE Gallia Belgica was a Roman province located in what is now the southern part of the Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, northeastern France, and western Germany. ... The Roman Empire ca. ... Roman province of Gallia Narbonensis, 120 AD Gallia Narbonensis was a Roman province located in what is now Languedoc and Provence, in southern France. ... The Roman province of Germania Inferior, 120 AD Germania Inferior was a Roman province located on the left bank of the Rhine, in todays southern and western Netherlands, the whole of Belgium and Luxembourg, parts of north-eastern France, and western Germany. ... Categories: Historical stubs | Ancient Roman provinces | German history | Germany | History of the Germanic peoples ... Roman province of Hispania Baetica, 120 CE In Hispania, which in Greek is called Iberia, there were three Imperial Roman provinces, Hispania Baetica in the south, Lusitania, corresponding to modern Portugal, in the west, and Hispania Tarraconensis in the north and northeast. ... In red is the province of Lusitania within the Roman Empire, 120 AD Lusitania was an ancient Roman province approximately including current Portugal, except for the area between the rivers Douro and Minho (part of Hispania Tarraconensis), and part of modern day western Spain, the present autonomous communities of Extremadura... Roman Imperial province of Hispania Tarraconensis, 120 AD Hispania Tarraconensis was one of three Roman provinces in Hispania. ... Iudaea Province in the 1st century Iudaea (Hebrew: יהודה, Standard Yehuda Tiberian , praise God; Greek: Ιουδαία; Latin: Iudaea) was a Roman province that extended over the region of Judea proper, later Palestine. ... Iturea is the Greek name of a province, derived from the Biblical Jetur, name of a son of Ishmael ( Gen. ... In ancient geography, Lycaonia was a large region in the interior of Asia Minor, north of Mount Taurus. ... Lycia (Lycian: Trm̃misa) is a region in the modern day Antalya Province on the southern coast of Turkey. ... In the first century A.D., the Emperor Claudius divided the Roman province of Mauretania into Mauretania Caesariensis and Mauretania Tingitana. ... In the first century A.D., the Emperor Claudius divided the Roman province of Mauretania into Mauretania Caesariensis and Mauretania Tingitana. ... Moesia (Greek: , Moisia; Bulgarian: Мизия, Miziya; Serbian: Мезија, Mezija) is an ancient province situated in the areas of modern Serbia and Bulgaria. ... Noricum in ancient geography was a celtic kingdom in Austria and later a province of the Roman Empire. ... Numidia was an ancient Berber kingdom in North Africa that later alternated between a Roman province and a Roman client state, and is no longer in existence today. ... Osroene (also: Osrohene, Osrhoene; Syriac: ܡܠܟܘܬܐ Ü•Ü’ܝܬ Ü¥Ü£ÜªÜ Ü¥ÜÜ¢Ü¶Ü), also known by the name of its capital city, Edessa (modern Sanli Urfa, in Syriac: ܐܘܪܗܝ), was one of several kingdoms arising from the dissolution of the Seleucid Empire. ... Position of the Roman province of Pannonia Pannonia is an ancient country bounded north and east by the Danube, conterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, and southward with Dalmatia and upper Moesia. ... Pamphylia, in ancient geography, was the region in the south of Asia Minor, between Lycia and Cilicia, extending from the Mediterranean to Mount Taurus. ... Pisidia was an inland region in southern Anatolia. ... Traditional rural Pontic house A man in traditional clothes from Trabzon, illustration Pontus is the name which was applied, in ancient times, to extensive tracts of country in the northeast of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) bordering on the Euxine (Black Sea), which was often called simply Pontos (the main), by... The Roman Empire ca. ... Sicilia (Latin) was the name given to the first province acquired by the Roman Republic in its rise to Empire, organised in 241 BCE as a proconsular governed territory in the aftermath of the First Punic War with Carthage. ... Roman province of Sophene, 120 CE Armenia Sophene was a short-lived (c. ... The Chersonesus Tauricus of Antiquity, shown on a map printed in London, ca 1770 Taurica (Greek: , Latin: ) also known as Tauris, Taurida, Tauric Chersonese, and Chersonesus Taurica was the name of Crimea in Antiquity. ... Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak  Thrace (Bulgarian: , Greek: , Attic Greek: ThrāíkÄ“ or ThrēíkÄ“, Latin: , Turkish: ) is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ...