NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia, from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν, "to split") and phrēn, phren- (φρήν, φρεν-, "mind"), is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a mental illness characterized by impairments in the perception or expression of reality, most commonly manifesting as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions or disorganized speech and thinking in the context of significant social or occupational dysfunction. Onset of symptoms typically occurs in young adulthood,^[1] with approximately 0.4–0.6%^[2]^[3] of the population affected. Diagnosis is based on the patient's self-reported experiences and observed behavior. No laboratory test for schizophrenia exists.^[4] Schizophrenia is: A mental illness; see schizophrenia. ... Photo of psychiatrist Eugene Bleuler File links The following pages link to this file: Eugene Bleuler Categories: Images in the public domain in the United States ... Eugene Bleuler (b. ... The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify diseases and a wide variety of signs, symptoms, abnormal findings, complaints, social circumstances and external causes of injury or disease. ... The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision (ICD-10) is a coding of diseases and signs, symptoms, abnormal findings, complaints, social circumstances and external causes of injury or diseases, as classified by the World Health Organization (WHO). ... // F00-F99 - Mental and behavioural disorders (F00-F09) Organic, including symptomatic, mental disorders (F00) Dementia in Alzheimers disease (F01) Vascular dementia (F011) Multi-infarct dementia (F02) Dementia in other diseases classified elsewhere (F020) Dementia in Picks disease (F021) Dementia in Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (F022) Dementia in Huntingtons... The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify diseases and a wide variety of signs, symptoms, abnormal findings, complaints, social circumstances and external causes of injury or disease. ... The following is a list of codes for International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems. ... The Mendelian Inheritance in Man project is a database that catalogues all the known diseases with a genetic component, and - when possible - links them to the relevant genes in the human genome. ... The Disease Bold textDatabase is a free website that provides information about the relationships between medical conditions, symptoms, and medications. ... MedlinePlus (medlineplus. ... eMedicine is an online clinical medical knowledge base that was founded in 1996. ... Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) is a huge controlled vocabulary (or metadata system) for the purpose of indexing journal articles and books in the life sciences. ... The root is the primary lexical unit of a word, which carries the most significant aspects of semantic content and cannot be reduced into smaller constituents. ... For other uses, see Mind (disambiguation). ... An MRI scan of a human brain and head. ... In psychology and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information. ... For other uses, see Reality (disambiguation). ... A hallucination is a perception in the absence of a stimulus that the person may or may not believe is real. ... A delusion is commonly defined as a fixed false belief and is used in everyday language to describe a belief that is either false, fanciful or derived from deception. ... In psychiatry, thought disorder or formal thought disorder is a term used to describe a pattern of disordered language use that is presumed to reflect disordered thinking. ...

Studies suggest that genetics, early environment, neurobiology and psychological and social processes are important contributory factors. Current psychiatric research is focused on the role of neurobiology, but a clear organic cause has not been found. Due to the many possible combinations of symptoms, there is debate about whether the diagnosis represents a single disorder or a number of discrete syndromes. For this reason, Eugen Bleuler termed the disease the schizophrenias (plural) when he coined the name. Despite its etymology, schizophrenia is not synonymous with dissociative identity disorder, previously known as multiple personality disorder or split personality; in popular culture the two are often confused. This article is about the general scientific term. ... Neurobiology is the study of cells of the nervous system and the organization of these cells into functional circuits that process information and mediate behavior. ... Psychological science redirects here. ... Eugene Bleuler (b. ... Etymologies redirects here. ... Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), as defined by the American Psychiatric Associations Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR), is a mental condition whereby a single individual evidences two or more distinct identities or personalities, each with its own pattern of perceiving and interacting with the environment. ... Popular culture (or pop culture) is the widespread cultural elements in any given society that are perpetuated through that societys vernacular language or lingua franca. ...

Increased dopaminergic activity in the mesolimbic pathway of the brain is a consistent finding. The mainstay of treatment is pharmacotherapy with antipsychotic medications; these primarily work by suppressing dopamine activity. Dosages of antipsychotics are generally lower than in the early decades of their use. Psychotherapy, vocational and social rehabilitation are also important. In more serious cases—where there is risk to self and others—involuntary hospitalization may be necessary, though hospital stays are less frequent and for shorter periods than they were in previous years.^[5] For other uses, see Dopamine (disambiguation). ... The mesolimbic pathway is one of the neural pathways in the brain that link the ventral tegmentum in the midbrain to the nucleus accumbens in the limbic system. ... The term antipsychotic is applied to a group of drugs used to treat psychosis. ...

The disorder is primarily thought to affect cognition, but it also usually contributes to chronic problems with behavior and emotion. People diagnosed with schizophrenia are likely to be diagnosed with comorbid conditions, including clinical depression and anxiety disorders; the lifetime prevalence of substance abuse is typically around 40%. Social problems, such as long-term unemployment, poverty and homelessness, are common and life expectancy is decreased; the average life expectancy of people with the disorder is 10 to 12 years less than those without, owing to increased physical health problems and a high suicide rate.^[6] Look up Cognition in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For the BjÃ¶rk song, see Human Behaviour Human behavior is the collection of behaviors exhibited by human beings and influenced by culture, attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, authority, rapport, hypnosis, persuasion, coercion and/or genetics. ... Look up Emotion in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... In medicine and in psychiatry, comorbidity is either The presence of one or more disorders (or diseases) in addition to a primary disease or disorder; or The effect of such additional disorders or diseases. ... On the Threshold of Eternity. ... Anxiety disorder is a blanket term covering several different forms of fear, phobia and nervous condition, that come on suddenly and prevent pursuing normal daily routines including: general anxiety disorder social anxiety, sometimes known as social phobia or social anxiety disorder (SAD) specific phobias agoraphobia claustrophobia panic disorder separation anxiety... In epidemiology, the prevalence of a disease in a statistical population is defined as the total number of cases of the disease in the population at a given time, or the total number of cases in the population, divided by the number of individuals in the population. ... Also see Alcoholism and Drug addiction. ... This article is about the measure of remaining life. ... For other uses, see Suicide (disambiguation). ...

Signs and symptoms

A person experiencing schizophrenia may demonstrate symptoms such as disorganized thinking, auditory hallucinations, and delusions. In severe cases, the person may be largely mute, remain motionless in bizarre postures, or exhibit purposeless agitation; these are signs of catatonia. The current classification of psychoses holds that symptoms need to have been present for at least one month in a period of at least six months of disturbed functioning. A schizophrenia-like psychosis of shorter duration is termed a schizophreniform disorder.^[4] No one sign is diagnostic of schizophrenia, and all can occur in other medical and psychiatric conditions.^[4] In psychiatry, thought disorder or formal thought disorder is a term used to describe a pattern of disordered language use that is presumed to reflect disordered thinking. ... A hallucination is a perception in the absence of a stimulus that the person may or may not believe is real. ... A delusion is commonly defined as a fixed false belief and is used in everyday language to describe a belief that is either false, fanciful or derived from deception. ... In medicine, a sign is a feature of disease as detected by the doctor during physical examination of a patient. ... This is a page about catatonic state. ... Schizophreniform disorder is characterized by the presence of criterion A symptoms of schizophrenia. ...

Social isolation commonly occurs and may be due to a number of factors. Impairment in social cognition is associated with schizophrenia, as are the active symptoms of paranoia from delusions and hallucinations, and the negative symptoms of apathy and avolition. Many people diagnosed with schizophrenia avoid potentially stressful social situations that may exacerbate mental distress.^[7] Social cognition is the name for both a branch of psychology that studies the cognitive processes involved in social interaction, and an umbrella term for the processes themselves. ... In psychology, avolition is a general lack of desire, motivation, and persistence. ...

Late adolescence and early adulthood are peak years for the onset of schizophrenia. These are critical periods in a young adult's social and vocational development, and they can be severely disrupted by disease onset. To minimize the effect of schizophrenia, much work has recently been done to identify and treat the prodromal (pre-onset) phase of the illness, which has been detected up to 30 months before the onset of symptoms, but may be present longer.^[8] Those who go on to develop schizophrenia may experience the non-specific symptoms of social withdrawal, irritability and dysphoria in the prodromal period,^[9] and transient or self-limiting psychotic symptoms in the prodromal phase before psychosis becomes apparent.^[10] In medicine, a prodrome is an early symptom indicating the development of a disease, or indicating that a disease attack is imminent. ... Look up dysphoria in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Schneiderian classification

The psychiatrist Kurt Schneider (1887–1967) listed the forms of psychotic symptoms that he thought distinguished schizophrenia from other psychotic disorders. These are called first-rank symptoms or Schneider's first-rank symptoms, and they include delusions of being controlled by an external force; the belief that thoughts are being inserted into or withdrawn from one's conscious mind; the belief that one's thoughts are being broadcast to other people; and hearing hallucinatory voices that comment on one's thoughts or actions or that have a conversation with other hallucinated voices.^[11] The reliability of first-rank symptoms has been questioned,^[12] although they have contributed to the current diagnostic criteria. This article is on Kurt Schneider, a German psychiatrist; for information on the midget actor, also known as Harry Earles, see The Doll Family. Kurt Schneider (1887-1967) was a German psychiatrist known largely for his writing on the diagnosis and understanding of schizophrenia. ... This article is on Kurt Schneider, a German psychiatrist; for information on the midget actor, also known as Harry Earles, see The Doll Family. Kurt Schneider (1887-1967) was a German psychiatrist known largely for his writing on the diagnosis and understanding of schizophrenia. ...

Positive and negative symptoms

Schizophrenia is often described in terms of positive (or productive) and negative (or deficit) symptoms.^[13] Positive symptoms include delusions, auditory hallucinations, and thought disorder, and are typically regarded as manifestations of psychosis. Negative symptoms are so-named because they are considered to be the loss or absence of normal traits or abilities, and include features such as flat or blunted affect and emotion, poverty of speech (alogia), anhedonia, and lack of motivation (avolition). Despite the appearance of blunted affect, recent studies indicate that there is often a normal or even heightened level of emotionality in Schizophrenia especially in response to stressful or negative events.^[14] A third symptom grouping, the disorganization syndrome, is commonly described, and includes chaotic speech, thought, and behaviour. There is evidence for a number of other symptom classifications.^[15] A delusion is commonly defined as a fixed false belief and is used in everyday language to describe a belief that is either false, fanciful or derived from deception. ... A hallucination is a perception in the absence of a stimulus that the person may or may not believe is real. ... In psychiatry, thought disorder or formal thought disorder is a term used to describe a pattern of disordered language use that is presumed to reflect disordered thinking. ... For other uses, see Psychosis (disambiguation). ... Blunted affect is the scientific term describing a lack of emotional reactivity on the part of an individual. ... Look up Emotion in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Bold text This article does not cite any references or sources. ... In psychology, alogia, or poverty of speech, is a general lack of additional, unprompted content seen in normal speech. ... In psychology, anhedonia is a patients inability to experience pleasure from normally pleasurable life events such as eating, exercise, and social/sexual interactions. ... Look up Motivation in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... In psychology, avolition is a general lack of desire, motivation, and persistence. ...

Diagnosis

Diagnosis is based on the self-reported experiences of the person as well as abnormalities in behavior reported by family members, friends or co-workers, followed by secondary signs observed by a psychiatrist, social worker, clinical psychologist or other clinician in a clinical assessment. There is a list of criteria that must be met for someone to be so diagnosed. These depend on both the presence and duration of certain signs and symptoms.^[4] For other uses, see Psychiatrist (disambiguation). ... A social worker is a person employed in the administration of charity, social service, welfare, and poverty agencies, advocacy, or religious outreach programs. ... Clinical psychology is the application of psychology to mental illness or mental health problems. ...

An initial assessment includes a comprehensive history and physical examination by a physician. Although there are no biological tests which confirm schizophrenia, tests are carried out to exclude medical illnesses which may rarely present with psychotic schizophrenia-like symptoms.^[4] These include blood tests measuring TSH to exclude hypo- or hyperthyroidism, basic electrolytes and serum calcium to rule out a metabolic disturbance, full blood count including ESR to rule out a systemic infection or chronic disease, and serology to exclude syphilis or HIV infection; two commonly ordered investigations are EEG to exclude epilepsy, and a CT scan of the head to exclude brain lesions. It is important to rule out a delirium which can be distinguished by visual hallucinations, acute onset and fluctuating level of consciousness and indicates an underlying medical illness. There are several psychiatric illnesses which may present with psychotic symptoms other than schizophrenia. These include bipolar disorder,^[16] borderline personality disorder,^[17] drug intoxication, brief drug-induced psychosis, and schizophreniform disorder. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (also known as TSH or thyrotropin) is a hormone synthesized and secreted by thyrotrope cells in the anterior pituitary gland which regulates the endocrine function of the thyroid gland. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Hyperthyroidism (or overactive thyroid gland) is the clinical syndrome caused by an excess of circulating free thyroxine (T4) or free triiodothyronine (T3), or both. ... Blood tests are laboratory tests done on blood to gain an appreciation of disease states and the function of organs. ... For other uses, see Calcium (disambiguation). ... A metabolic disorder is a medical disorder which affects the production of energy within individual human (or animal) cells. ... Schematics of shorthand for complete blood count commonly used by physicians. ... The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), also called a sedimentation rate, sed rate or Biernacki Reaction, is a non-specific measure of inflammation that is commonly used as a medical screening test. ... Systemic infection is a generic term for infection caused by microorganisms in animals or plants, where the causal agent (the microbe) has spread actively or passively in the hosts anatomy and is disseminated throughout several organs in different systems of the host. ... Serology is the scientific study of blood serum. ... Syphilis is a curable sexually transmitted disease caused by the Treponema pallidum spirochete. ... Species Human immunodeficiency virus 1 Human immunodeficiency virus 2 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS, a condition in humans in which the immune system begins to fail, leading to life-threatening opportunistic infections). ... â€œEEGâ€ redirects here. ... negron305 Cat scan redirects here. ... This article is about the mental state and medical condition. ... For other uses, see Bipolar. ... Borderline Personality Disorder (DSM-IV Personality Disorders 301. ... Schizophreniform disorder is characterized by the presence of criterion A symptoms of schizophrenia. ...

Investigations are not generally repeated for relapse unless there is a specific medical indication. These may include serum blood sugar level (BSL) if olanzapine has been prescribed previously, liver function tests if chlorpromazine, or creatine phosphokinase (CPK) to exclude neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Assessment and treatment are usually done on an outpatient basis; admission to an inpatient facility is considered if there is a risk to self or others. In medicine, blood sugar is a term used to refer to levels of glucose in the blood. ... Olanzapine (oh-LAN-za-peen, sold as ZyprexaÂ®, Zyprexa ZydisÂ®, or in combination with fluoxetine, as SymbyaxÂ®) was the third atypical antipsychotic to gain approval by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and has become one of the most commonly used atypical antipsychotics. ... Liver function tests (LFTs or LFs), which include liver enzymes, are groups of clinical biochemistry laboratory blood assays designed to give information about the state of a patients liver. ... Chlorpromazine was the first antipsychotic drug, used during the 1950s and 1960s. ... Creatine Kinase Creatine kinase (CK), also known as phosphocreatine kinase or creatine phosphokinase (CPK) is an enzyme (EC 2. ... Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) is a life-threatening, neurological disorder most often caused by an adverse reaction to neuroleptic or antipsychotic drugs. ...

The most widely used criteria for diagnosing schizophrenia are from the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, the current version being DSM-IV-TR, and the World Health Organization's International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, currently the ICD-10. The latter criteria are typically used in European countries while the DSM criteria are used in the USA or the rest of the world, as well as prevailing in research studies. The ICD-10 criteria put more emphasis on Schneiderian first rank symptoms although, in practice, agreement between the two systems is high.^[18] The WHO has developed the tool SCAN (Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry) which can be used for diagnosing a number of psychiatric conditions, including schizophrenia. Due to the epidemic of medical errors, readers are cautioned to be aware that the American Psychiatric Association isnt immune to this. ... The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual published by the American Psychiatric Association The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is a handbook for mental health professionals that lists different categories of mental disorder and the criteria for diagnosing them, according to the publishing organization the American Psychiatric Association. ... WHO redirects here. ... The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (most commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) provides codes to classify diseases and a wide variety of signs, symptoms, abnormal findings, complaints, social circumstances and external causes of injury or disease. ... This article is on Kurt Schneider, a German psychiatrist; for information on the midget actor, also known as Harry Earles, see The Doll Family. Kurt Schneider (1887-1967) was a German psychiatrist known largely for his writing on the diagnosis and understanding of schizophrenia. ... WHO redirects here. ... The terms scan and scanning have several meanings: Wiktionary has related dictionary definitions, such as: scan The term scan has the following meanings: To examine sequentially, part by part. ...

DSM IV-TR Criteria

Additional criteria are also given that exclude the diagnosis; thus schizophrenia cannot be diagnosed if symptoms of mood disorder or pervasive developmental disorder are present, or the symptoms are the direct result of a substance (e.g., abuse of a drug/medication) or a general medical condition. A delusion is commonly defined as a fixed false belief and is used in everyday language to describe a belief that is either false, fanciful or derived from deception. ... A hallucination is a perception in the absence of a stimulus that the person may or may not believe is real. ... This article is about the concept of abstraction in general. ... In psychiatry, thought disorder or formal thought disorder is a term used to describe a pattern of disordered language use that is presumed to reflect disordered thinking. ... This is a page about catatonic state. ... Blunted affect is the scientific term describing a lack of emotional reactivity on the part of an individual. ... In psychology, alogia, or poverty of speech, is a general lack of additional, unprompted content seen in normal speech. ... In psychology, avolition is a general lack of desire, motivation, and persistence. ... A mood disorder is a condition whereby the prevailing emotional mood is distorted or inappropriate to the circumstances. ...

Subtypes

Historically, schizophrenia in the West was classified into simple, catatonic, hebephrenic (now known as disorganized), and paranoid. The DSM contains five sub-classifications of schizophrenia: Occident redirects here. ... This is a page about catatonic state. ... Disorganized schizophrenia is a subtype of schizophrenia as defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. ... The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual published by the American Psychiatric Association The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is a handbook for mental health professionals that lists different categories of mental disorder and the criteria for diagnosing them, according to the publishing organization the American Psychiatric Association. ...

The ICD-10 recognises a further two subtypes: For other senses of this word, see paranoia (disambiguation). ... Disorganized schizophrenia is a subtype of schizophrenia as defined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. ... This is a page about catatonic state. ... Waxy flexibility is psychomotor symptom of catatonic schizophrenia where a posture, into which placed, is indefinitely maintained [1]. For instance, if you were to move the arm of someone with waxy flexibility, he would keep his arm where you moved it until it was moved again, as if made from...

Diagnostic issues and controversies

Schizophrenia as a diagnostic entity has been criticised as lacking in scientific validity or reliability,^[19]^[20] part of a larger criticism of the validity of psychiatric diagnoses in general. One alternative suggests that the issues with the diagnosis would be better addressed as individual dimensions along which everyone varies, such that there is a spectrum or continuum rather than a cut-off between normal and ill. This approach appears consistent with research on schizotypy and of a relatively high prevalence of psychotic experiences^[21]^[22] and often non-distressing delusional beliefs^[23] amongst the general public.^[22] This article is an expansion of a section entitled Criticism from within the main article: Biological psychiatry The debate about psychiatrys political implications is discussed in Anti-psychiatry The biopsychiatry controversy is an ongoing dispute over the scientific basis of biological psychiatry theory and practice. ... Schizotypy is a psychological concept which describes a continuum of personality characteristics and experiences related to psychosis and in particular, schizophrenia. ...

Another criticism is that the definitions used for criteria lack consistency;^[24] this is particularly relevant to the evaluation of delusions and thought disorder. More recently, it has been argued that psychotic symptoms are not a good basis for making a diagnosis of schizophrenia as "psychosis is the 'fever' of mental illness — a serious but nonspecific indicator".^[25] A delusion is commonly defined as a fixed false belief and is used in everyday language to describe a belief that is either false, fanciful or derived from deception. ... In psychiatry, thought disorder or formal thought disorder is a term used to describe a pattern of disordered language use that is presumed to reflect disordered thinking. ...

Perhaps because of these factors, studies examining the diagnosis of schizophrenia have typically shown relatively low or inconsistent levels of diagnostic reliability. Most famously, David Rosenhan's 1972 study, published as On being sane in insane places, demonstrated that the diagnosis of schizophrenia was (at least at the time) often subjective and unreliable.^[26] More recent studies have found agreement between any two psychiatrists when diagnosing schizophrenia tends to reach about 65% at best.^[27] This, and the results of earlier studies of diagnostic reliability (which typically reported even lower levels of agreement) have led some critics to argue that the diagnosis of schizophrenia should be abandoned.^[28] In general, diagnosis (plural diagnoses) has two distinct dictionary definitions. ... David Rosenhan is a psychiatrist See also: Rosenhan experiment On being sane in insane places Categories: People stubs ... The Rosenhan experiment was a famous experiment into the validity of psychiatric diagnosis conducted by David Rosenhan in 1972. ...

In 2004 in Japan, the Japanese term for schizophrenia was changed from Seishin-Bunretsu-Byo (mind-split-disease) to Tōgō-shitchō-shō (integration disorder).^[29] In 2006, campaigners in the UK, under the banner of Campaign for Abolition of the Schizophrenia Label, argued for a similar rejection of the diagnosis of schizophrenia and a different approach to the treatment and understanding of the symptoms currently associated with it.^[30] TÅgÅ-shitchÅ-shÅ (çµ±åˆå¤±èª¿ç—‡) or integration disorder is a Japanese psychiatric diagnosis that replaced the previous diagnostic category of Seishin Bunretsu Byo (mind-split-disease) which was equivalent to the DSM-IV or ICD-10 diagnosis of schizophrenia. ...

Alternatively, other proponents have put forward using the presence of specific neurocognitive deficits to make a diagnosis. These take the form of a reduction or impairment in basic psychological functions such as memory, attention, executive function and problem solving. It is these sorts of difficulties, rather than the psychotic symptoms (which can in many cases be controlled by antipsychotic medication), which seem to be the cause of most disability in schizophrenia. However, this argument is relatively new and it is unlikely that the method of diagnosing schizophrenia will change radically in the near future.^[31] Neurocognitive is a term used to describe cognitive functions closely linked to the function of particular areas, neural pathways, or cortical networks in the brain. ... For other uses, see Memory (disambiguation). ... This article is about psychological concept of attention. ... The executive system is a theorised cognitive system in psychology that controls and manages other cognitive processes. ... Problem solving forms part of thinking. ... The term antipsychotic is applied to a group of drugs used to treat psychosis. ... Look up disability in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

The diagnosis of schizophrenia has been used for political rather than therapeutic purposes; in the Soviet Union an additional sub-classification of sluggishly progressing schizophrenia was created. Particularly in the RSFSR (Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic), this diagnosis was used for the purpose of silencing political dissidents or forcing them to recant their ideas by the use of forcible confinement and treatment.^[32] In 2000 there were similar concerns regarding detention and 'treatment' of practitioners of the Falun Gong movement by the Chinese government. This led the American Psychiatric Association's Committee on the Abuse of Psychiatry and Psychiatrists to pass a resolution to urge the World Psychiatric Association to investigate the situation in China.^[33] This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... State motto: Russian: ÐŸÑ€Ð¾Ð»ÐµÑ‚Ð°Ñ€Ð¸Ð¸ Ð²ÑÐµÑ… ÑÑ‚Ñ€Ð°Ð½, ÑÐ¾ÐµÐ´Ð¸Ð½ÑÐ¹Ñ‚ÐµÑÑŒ! Translation: Workers of the world, unite! Capital Moscow Official language Russian Established In the USSR: - Since - Until November 7, 1917 December 30, 1922 December 12, 1991 (independence) Area - Total - Water (%) Ranked 1st in the USSR 17,075,200 kmÂ² 13% Population - Total - Density Ranked 1st in the... Falun Gong practitioners enacting torture scenes in New York City Demonstration against persecution of Falun Gong at the 2004 Republican National Convention in New York City Arrest of People practicing the 5th. ... Falun Gong, (Traditional Chinese: ; Simplified Chinese: ; Hanyu Pinyin: ; literally Practice of the Wheel of Law) also known as Falun Dafa, (Traditional Chinese: ; Simplified Chinese: ; Hanyu Pinyin: ; lit. ... Due to the epidemic of medical errors, readers are cautioned to be aware that the American Psychiatric Association isnt immune to this. ... The World Psychiatric Association is an international umbrella organisation for psychiatrists that sets ethical, scientific and treatment standards in the practice of psychiatry. ...

Epidemiology

Schizophrenia occurs equally in males and females although typically appears earlier in men with the peak ages of onset being 20–28 years for males and 26–32 years for females.^[1] Much rarer are instances of childhood-onset^[34] and late- (middle age) or very-late-onset (old age) schizophrenia.^[35] The lifetime prevalence of schizophrenia, that is, the proportion of individuals expected to experience the disease at any time in their lives, is commonly given at 1%. A 2002 systematic review of many studies, however, found a lifetime prevalence of 0.55%.^[3] Despite the received wisdom that schizophrenia occurs at similar rates throughout the world, its prevalence varies across the world,^[36] within countries,^[37] and at the local and neighbourhood level.^[38] One particularly stable and replicable finding has been the association between living in an urban environment and schizophrenia diagnosis, even after factors such as drug use, ethnic group and size of social group have been controlled for.^[39] Schizophrenia is known to be a major cause of disability. In a 1999 study of 14 countries, active psychosis was ranked the third-most-disabling condition, after quadriplegia and dementia and before paraplegia and blindness.^[40] In epidemiology, the prevalence of a disease in a statistical population is defined as the total number of cases of the disease in the population at a given time, or the total number of cases in the population, divided by the number of individuals in the population. ... Systematic reviews are named as the highest level of medical evidence, by evidence based medicine professionals. ... The city of Los Angeles is an example of urbanisation Urbanization or Urbanisation means the removal of the rural characteristics of a town or area, a process associated with the development of civilization. ... Recreational drug use is the use of psychoactive drugs for recreational rather than medical or spiritual purposes, although the distinction is not always clear. ... In sociology, a group is usually defined as a collection consisting of a number of people who share certain aspects, interact with one another, accept rights and obligations as members of the group and share a common identity. ... Look up disability in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... For other uses, see Psychosis (disambiguation). ... Quadriplegia, also known as tetraplegia, is a symptom in which a human experiences paralysis of all four limbs, although not necessarily total paralysis. ... For other uses, see Dementia (disambiguation). ... Paraplegia is an impairment in motor and/or sensory function of the lower extremities. ... This article is about the visual condition. ...

Causes

While the reliability of the diagnosis introduces difficulties in measuring the relative effect of genes and environment (for example, symptoms overlap to some extent with severe bipolar disorder or major depression), evidence suggests that genetic and environmental factors can act in combination to result in schizophrenia.^[42] Evidence suggests that the diagnosis of schizophrenia has a significant heritable component but that onset is significantly influenced by environmental factors or stressors.^[43] The idea of an inherent vulnerability (or diathesis) in some people, which can be unmasked by biological, psychological or environmental stressors, is known as the stress-diathesis model.^[44] The idea that biological, psychological and social factors are all important is known as the "biopsychosocial" model. Causes of Schizophrenia Note: Please review this material, and the material in Talk:Schizophrenia by the same author marked for review. See also see the speculative article How the pathology of schizophrenia relates to symptoms No simple explanation of Schizophrenia is available. ... Image File history File links Schizophrenia_PET_scan. ... Image of a typical positron emission tomography (PET) facility Positron emission tomography (PET) is a nuclear medicine medical imaging technique which produces a three-dimensional image or map of functional processes in the body. ... The frontal lobe is an area in the brain of mammals. ... Working memory is a theoretical framework within cognitive psychology that refers to the structures and processes used for temporarily storing and manipulating information. ... For other uses, see Dopamine (disambiguation). ... Coronal slices of human brain showing the basal ganglia, the striatum and pallidum globus pallidus: external segment (GPe), subthalamic nucleus (STN), globus pallidus: internal segment (GPi), and substantia nigra (SN). ... Neurocognitive is a term used to describe cognitive functions closely linked to the function of particular areas, neural pathways, or cortical networks in the brain. ... For other uses, see Bipolar. ... On the Threshold of Eternity. ... In epidemiology, environmental factors are those determinants of disease that are not transmitted genetically. ...

Genetic

Estimates of the heritability of schizophrenia tend to vary owing to the difficulty of separating the effects of genetics and the environment although twin studies have suggested a high level of heritability.^[45] It is likely that schizophrenia is a condition of complex inheritance, with several genes possibly interacting to generate risk for schizophrenia or the separate components that can co-occur leading to a diagnosis.^[46] Recent work has suggested that genes that raise the risk for developing schizophrenia are non-specific, and may also raise the risk of developing other psychotic disorders such as bipolar disorder.^[47]^[48] In genetics, heritability is the proportion of phenotypic variation in a population that is attributable to genetic variation among individuals. ... Twin study - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ... For other uses, see Bipolar. ...

Prenatal

It is thought that causal factors can initially come together in early neurodevelopment, including during pregnancy, to increase the risk of later developing schizophrenia. One curious finding is that people diagnosed with schizophrenia are more likely to have been born in winter or spring, (at least in the northern hemisphere).^[49] There is now evidence that prenatal exposure to infections increases the risk for developing schizophrenia later in life, providing additional evidence for a link between in utero developmental pathology and risk of developing the condition.^[50] The study of neural development draws on both neuroscience and developmental biology to describe the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which complex nervous systems emerge during embryonic development and throughout life. ... Northern hemisphere highlighted in yellow. ... Prenatal means before birth (is widely used in biology). ...

Social

Living in an urban environment has been consistently found to be a risk factor for schizophrenia.^[51]^[39] Social disadvantage has been found to be a risk factor, including poverty^[52] and migration related to social adversity, racial discrimination, family dysfunction, unemployment or poor housing conditions.^[53] Childhood experiences of abuse or trauma have also been implicated as risk factors for a diagnosis of schizophrenia later in life.^[54]^[55] Parenting is not held responsible for schizophrenia but unsupportive dysfunctional relationships may contribute to an increased risk.^[56]^[57] Cities with at least a million inhabitants in 2006 An urban area is an area with an increased density of human-created structures in comparison to the areas surrounding it. ...

Substance use

The relationship between schizophrenia and drug use is complex, meaning that a clear causal connection between drug use and schizophrenia has been difficult to distinguish. There is strong evidence that using certain drugs can trigger either the onset or relapse of schizophrenia in some people. It may also be the case, however, that people with schizophrenia use drugs to overcome negative feelings associated with both the commonly prescribed antipsychotic medication and the condition itself, where negative emotion, paranoia and anhedonia are all considered to be core features.^[58] Amphetamines trigger the release of dopamine and excessive dopamine function is believed to be responsible for many symptoms of schizophrenia (known as the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia), amphetamines may worsen schizophrenia symptoms.^[59] Schizophrenia can be triggered by heavy use of hallucinogenic or stimulant drugs.^[60] One study suggests that cannabis use can contribute to psychosis, though the researchers suspected cannabis use was only a small component in a broad range of factors that can cause psychosis.^[61] For other senses of this word, see paranoia (disambiguation). ... In psychology, anhedonia is a patients inability to experience pleasure from normally pleasurable life events such as eating, exercise, and social/sexual interactions. ... Amphetamine or Amfetamine(Alpha-Methyl-PHenEThylAMINE), also known as beta-phenyl-isopropylamine and benzedrine, is a prescription stimulant commonly used to treat Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in adults and children. ... The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia or the dopamine hypothesis of psychosis is a theory that argues that the unusual behaviour and experiences associated with schizophrenia (sometimes extended to psychosis in general) can be fully or largely explained by changes in dopamine function in the brain. ... The general group of pharmacological agents commonly known as hallucinogens can be divided into three broad categories: psychedelics, dissociatives, and deliriants. ... Cannabis, also known as marijuana[1] or ganja (Hindi: à¤—à¤¾à¤‚à¤œà¤¾),[2] is a psychoactive product of the plant Cannabis sativa. ...

Psychological

A number of psychological mechanisms have been implicated in the development and maintenance of schizophrenia. Cognitive biases that have been identified in those with a diagnosis or those at risk, especially when under stress or in confusing situations, include excessive attention to potential threats, jumping to conclusions, making external attributions, impaired reasoning about social situations and mental states, difficulty distinguishing inner speech from speech from an external source, and difficulties with early visual processing and maintaining concentration.^[62]^[63]^[64]^[65] Some cognitive features may reflect global neurocognitive deficits in memory, attention, problem-solving, executive function or social cognition, while others may be related to particular issues and experiences.^[66]^[56] Despite a common appearance of "blunted affect", recent findings indicate that many individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia are highly emotionally responsive, particularly to stressful or negative stimuli, and that such sensitivity may cause vulnerability to symptoms or to the disorder.^[67]^[68]^[69] Some evidence suggests that the content of delusional beliefs and psychotic experiences can reflect emotional causes of the disorder, and that how a person interprets such experiences can influence symptomology.^[70]^[71]^[72]^[73] Further evidence for the role of psychological mechanisms comes from the effects of therapies on symptoms of schizophrenia.^[74] This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Attribution is concept in social psychology. ... The phrase theory of mind (often abbreviated as ToM) is used in several related ways: general categories of theories of mind - theories about the nature of mind, and its structure and processes; theories of mind related to individual minds; in recent years, the phrase theory of mind has more commonly... Neurocognitive is a term used to describe cognitive functions closely linked to the function of particular areas, neural pathways, or cortical networks in the brain. ... For other uses, see Memory (disambiguation). ... This article is about psychological concept of attention. ... Problem solving forms part of thinking. ... The executive system is a theorised cognitive system in psychology that controls and manages other cognitive processes. ... Social cognition is the name for both a branch of psychology that studies the cognitive processes involved in social interaction, and an umbrella term for the processes themselves. ...

Neural

Studies using neuropsychological tests and brain imaging technologies such as fMRI and PET to examine functional differences in brain activity have shown that differences seem to most commonly occur in the frontal lobes, hippocampus, and temporal lobes.^[75] These differences have been linked to the neurocognitive deficits often associated with schizophrenia.^[76] The role of antipsychotic medication, which nearly all those studied had taken, in causing such abnormalities is also unclear.^[77] Sample fMRI data This example of fMRI data shows regions of activation including primary visual cortex (V1, BA17), extrastriate visual cortex and lateral geniculate body in a comparison between a task involving a complex moving visual stimulus and rest condition (viewing a black screen). ... Sample fMRI data This example of fMRI data shows regions of activation including primary visual cortex (V1, BA17), extrastriate visual cortex and lateral geniculate body in a comparison between a task involving a complex moving visual stimulus and rest condition (viewing a black screen). ... Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is the use of MRI to measure the haemodynamic response related to neural activity in the brain or spinal cord of humans or other animals. ... Brain imaging is a fairly recent discipline within medicine and neuroscience. ... Neuropsychological tests are specifically designed tasks used to measure a psychological function known to be linked to a particular brain structure or pathway. ... Brain imaging is a fairly recent discipline within medicine and neuroscience. ... Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is the use of MRI to measure the haemodynamic response related to neural activity in the brain or spinal cord of humans or other animals. ... Image of a typical positron emission tomography (PET) facility Positron emission tomography (PET) is a nuclear medicine medical imaging technique which produces a three-dimensional image or map of functional processes in the body. ... The frontal lobe is an area in the brain of mammals. ... For other uses, see Hippocampus (disambiguation). ... The temporal lobes are part of the cerebrum. ... Neurocognitive is a term used to describe cognitive functions closely linked to the function of particular areas, neural pathways, or cortical networks in the brain. ...

Particular focus has been placed upon the function of dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway of the brain. This focus largely resulted from the accidental finding that a drug group which blocks dopamine function, known as the phenothiazines, could reduce psychotic symptoms. An influential theory, known as the Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia, proposed that a malfunction involving dopamine pathways was the cause of (the positive symptoms of) schizophrenia. This theory is now thought to be overly simplistic as a complete explanation, partly because newer antipsychotic medication (called atypical antipsychotic medication) can be equally effective as older medication (called typical antipsychotic medication), but also affects serotonin function and may have slightly less of a dopamine blocking effect.^[78] The mesolimbic pathway is one of the neural pathways in the brain that link the ventral tegmentum in the midbrain to the nucleus accumbens in the limbic system. ... Phenothiazines are the largest of the 5 main classes of antipsychotic drugs. ... The dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia or the dopamine hypothesis of psychosis is a theory that argues that the unusual behaviour and experiences associated with schizophrenia (sometimes extended to psychosis in general) can be fully or largely explained by changes in dopamine function in the brain. ... The atypical antipsychotics (also known as second generation antipsychotics) are a class of prescription medications used to treat psychiatric conditions. ... Typical antipsychotics (sometimes referred to as conventional antipsychotics or conventional neuroleptics) are a class of antipsychotic drugs first developed in the 1950s and used to treat psychosis (in particular, schizophrenia), and are generally being replaced by atypical antipsychotic drugs. ... For the professional wrestling stable, see Ravens Nest#Serotonin. ... For other uses, see Dopamine (disambiguation). ...

Interest has also focused on the neurotransmitter glutamate and the reduced function of the NMDA glutamate receptor in schizophrenia. This has largely been suggested by abnormally low levels of glutamate receptors found in postmortem brains of people previously diagnosed with schizophrenia^[79] and the discovery that the glutamate blocking drugs such as phencyclidine and ketamine can mimic the symptoms and cognitive problems associated with the condition.^[80] The fact that reduced glutamate function is linked to poor performance on tests requiring frontal lobe and hippocampal function and that glutamate can affect dopamine function, all of which have been implicated in schizophrenia, have suggested an important mediating (and possibly causal) role of glutamate pathways in schizophrenia.^[81] Further support of this theory has come from preliminary trials suggesting the efficacy of coagonists at the NMDA receptor complex in reducing some of the positive symptoms of schizophrenia.^[82] Glutamate is the anion of glutamic acid. ... The NMDA receptor (NMDAR) is an ionotropic receptor for glutamate (NMDA (N-methyl d-aspartate) is a name of its selective specific agonist). ... Glutamate is a neurotransmitter in nerve cells which binds to all glutamate receptors located on neuron membranes, and is an example of a transmembrane receptor. ... â€œAngel Dustâ€ redirects here. ... Ketamine is a dissociative anesthetic for use in human and veterinary medicine developed by Parke-Davis (1962). ... The frontal lobe is an area in the brain of mammals. ... For other uses, see Hippocampus (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Dopamine (disambiguation). ...

There have also been findings of differences in the size and structure of certain brain areas in schizophrenia, starting with the discovery of ventricular enlargement in those for whom negative symptoms were most prominent.^[83] However, this has not proven particularly reliable on the level of the individual person, with considerable variation between patients. More recent studies have shown various differences in brain structure between people with and without diagnoses of schizophrenia.^[84] While brain structure changes have been found in people diagnosed with schizophrenia who have never been treated with antipsychotic drugs^[85] there is evidence that the medication itself might cause additional changes in the brain's structure.^[86] However, as with earlier studies, many of these differences are only reliably detected when comparing groups of people, and are unlikely to predict any differences in brain structure of an individual person with schizophrenia. The ventricular system is a set of structures in the brain continuous with the central canal of the spinal cord. ...

Treatment and services

The concept of a cure as such remains controversial, as there is no consensus on the definition, although some criteria for the remission of symptoms have recently been suggested.^[87] The effectiveness of schizophrenia treatment is often assessed using standardized methods, one of the most common being the positive and negative syndrome scale (PANSS).^[88] Management of symptoms and improving function is thought to be more achievable than a cure. Treatment was revolutionized in the mid 1950s with the development and introduction of chlorpromazine.^[89] A recovery model is increasingly adopted, emphasizing hope, empowerment and social inclusion.^[90] The concept of a cure as such in the treatment of schizophrenia remains controversial, as there is no consensus on the definition of treatment in the case of schizophrenia, although some criteria for the remission of symptoms have recently been suggested. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (994x1100, 242 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Chlorpromazine ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (994x1100, 242 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Chlorpromazine ... Chlorpromazine was the first antipsychotic drug, used during the 1950s and 1960s. ... The PANSS or the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale is a medical scale used for measuring symptom reduction of schizophrenia patients. ... Chlorpromazine was the first antipsychotic drug, used during the 1950s and 1960s. ... Psychosocial recovery, or the Recovery Model, refers to the process of recovery from mental disorder or substance dependence, and/or from being labeled in those terms. ...

Hospitalization may occur with severe episodes of schizophrenia. This can be voluntary or (if mental health legislation allows it) involuntary (called civil or involuntary commitment). Long-term inpatient stays are now less common due to deinstitutionalization, although can still occur.^[5] Following (or in lieu of) a hospital admission, support services available can include drop-in centers, visits from members of a community mental health team or Assertive Community Treatment team, supported employment^[91] and patient-led support groups. Involuntary commitment is the practice of using legal means or forms as part of a mental health law to commit a person to a mental hospital, insane asylum or psychiatric ward without their informed consent, against their will or over their protests. ... Deinstitutionalisation is the practice of moving people (especially those with developmental disability) from mental institutions into community-based or family-based environments. ... Assertive community treatment (ACT) is a form of total in-community care for people with serious and persistent mental illness. ...

In many non-Western societies, schizophrenia may only be treated with more informal, community-led methods. The outcome for people diagnosed with schizophrenia in non-Western countries may actually be better than for people in the West.^[92] The reasons for this effect are not clear, although cross-cultural studies are being conducted. Cross-Cultural Studies is a specialization in Anthropology that uses field data from many societies to examine the scope of human behavior and test hypotheses about human behavior and culture. ...

Medication

The mainstay of psychiatric treatment for schizophrenia is an antipsychotic medication.^[93] These can reduce the "positive" symptoms of psychosis. Most antipsychotics take around 7–14 days to have their main effect. The term antipsychotic is applied to a group of drugs used to treat psychosis. ...

Though expensive, the newer atypical antipsychotic drugs are usually preferred for initial treatment over the older typical antipsychotics; they are often better tolerated and associated with lower rates of tardive dyskinesia, although they are more likely to induce weight gain and obesity-related diseases.^[94] Prolactin elevations have been reported in women with schizophrenia taking atypical antipsychotics.^[95]It remains unclear whether the newer antipsychotics reduce the chances of developing neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a rare but serious and potentially fatal neurological disorder most often caused by an adverse reaction to neuroleptic or antipsychotic drugs.^[96] Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1521x2021, 536 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Risperidone Packaging and labelling Blister pack Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1521x2021, 536 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Risperidone Packaging and labelling Blister pack Metadata This file contains additional information, probably added from the digital camera... Risperdal tablets Risperidone (pronounced Ris-PER-Ç-dÅn and sold under the trade name Risperdal in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Portugal and several other countries, Risperdal or Ridal in New Zealand, Rispolept in Eastern Europe, and Belivon, or Rispen elsewhere) is an atypical antipsychotic medication developed by... The atypical antipsychotics (also known as second generation antipsychotics) are a class of prescription medications used to treat psychiatric conditions. ... The atypical antipsychotics (also known as second generation antipsychotics) are a class of prescription medications used to treat psychiatric conditions. ... A first-line treatment or first-line therapy is a medical therapy recommended for the initial treatment of a disease, sign or symptom, usually on the basis of empirical evidence for its efficacy. ... Typical antipsychotics (sometimes referred to as conventional antipsychotics or conventional neuroleptics) are a class of antipsychotic drugs first developed in the 1950s and used to treat psychosis (in particular, schizophrenia), and are generally being replaced by atypical antipsychotic drugs. ... Tardive dyskinesia is a serious neurological disorder caused by the long-term and/or high-dose use of dopamine antagonists, usually antipsychotics and among them especially the typical antipsychotics. ... Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) is a life-threatening, neurological disorder most often caused by an adverse reaction to neuroleptic or antipsychotic drugs. ... The term antipsychotic is applied to a group of drugs used to treat psychosis. ...

The two classes of antipsychotics are generally thought equally effective for the treatment of the positive symptoms. Some researchers have suggested that the atypicals offer additional benefit for the negative symptoms and cognitive deficits associated with schizophrenia, although the clinical significance of these effects has yet to be established. Recent reviews have refuted the claim that atypical antipsychotics have fewer extrapyramidal side effects than typical antipsychotics, especially when the latter are used in low doses or when low potency antipsychotics are chosen.^[97]

Response of symptoms to medication is variable; "Treatment-resistant schizophrenia" is a term used for the failure of symptoms to respond satisfactorily to at least two different antipsychotics.^[98] Patients in this category may be prescribed clozapine,^[99] a medication of superior effectiveness but several potentially lethal side effects including agranulocytosis and myocarditis.^[100] Clozapine may have the additional benefit of reducing propensity for substance abuse in schizophrenic patients. ^[101] For other patients who are unwilling or unable to take medication regularly, long-acting depot preparations of antipsychotics may be given every two weeks to achieve control. The United States of America and Australia are two countries with laws allowing the forced administration of this type of medication on those who refuse but are otherwise stable and living in the community. Some findings have found that in the longer-term some individuals may do better not taking antipsychotics.^[102] Despite the promising results of early pilot trials,^[103] omega-3 fatty acids failed to improve schizophrenic symptoms, according to the most recent meta-analysis.^[104] Clozapine (sold as ClozarilÂ®, LeponexÂ®, FazacloÂ®) was the first of the atypical antipsychotics to be developed. ... In medicine (cardiology), myocarditis is inflammation of the myocardium, the muscular part of the heart. ... Typical antipsychotics (sometimes referred to as conventional antipsychotics or conventional neuroleptics) are a class of antipsychotic drugs first developed in the 1950s and used to treat psychosis (in particular, schizophrenia), and are generally being replaced by atypical antipsychotic drugs. ... Outpatient commitment refers to mental health law which allows the compulsory, community-based treatment of individuals with mental illness. ... Omega-3 fatty acids are polyunsaturated fatty acids found in certain fish tissues, and in vegetable sources such as flax seeds, walnuts, and canola oil. ... A meta-analysis is a statistical practice of combining the results of a number of studies. ...

Psychological and social interventions

Psychotherapy is also widely recommended and used in the treatment of schizophrenia, although services may often be confined to pharmacotherapy because of reimbursement problems or lack of training.^[105] Psychotherapy is an interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living. ...

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is used to reduce symptoms and improve related issues such as self-esteem, social functioning, and insight. Although the results of early trials were inconclusive,^[106] more recent reviews suggest that CBT can be an effective treatment for the psychotic symptoms of schizophrenia.^[107] Another approach is cognitive remediation therapy, a technique aimed at remediating the neurocognitive deficits sometimes present in schizophrenia. Based on techniques of neuropsychological rehabilitation, early evidence has shown it to be cognitively effective, with some improvements related to measurable changes in brain activation as measured by fMRI.^[108] A similar approach known as cognitive enhancement therapy, which focuses on social cognition as well as neurocognition, has shown efficacy.^[109] A Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a psychotherapy based on modifying cognitions, assumptions, beliefs and behaviors, with the aim of influencing disturbed emotions. ... In psychology, self-esteem or self-worth is a persons self-image at an emotional level; circumventing reason and logic. ... Neurocognitive is a term used to describe cognitive functions closely linked to the function of particular areas, neural pathways, or cortical networks in the brain. ... Rehabilitation of sensory and cognitive function typically involves methods for retraining neural pathways or training new neural pathways to regain or improve neurocognitive functioning that has been diminished by disease or traumatic injury. ... Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (or fMRI) describes the use of MRI to measure hemodynamic signals related to neural activity in the brain or spinal cord of humans or other animals. ...

Family Therapy or Education, which addresses the whole family system of an individual with a diagnosis of schizophrenia, has been consistently found to be beneficial, at least if the duration of intervention is longer-term.^[110]^[111]^[112] Aside from therapy, the impact of schizophrenia on families and the burden on carers has been recognized, with the increasing availability of self-help books on the subject.^[113]^[114] There is also some evidence for benefits from social skills training, although there have also been significant negative findings.^[115]^[116] Some studies have explored the possible benefits of music therapy and other creative therapies.^[117]^[118]^[119] Family therapy, also referred to as couple and family therapy and family systems therapy, is a branch of psychotherapy that works with families and couples in intimate relationships to nurture change and development. ...

The Soteria model is alternative to inpatient hospital treatment using a minimal medication approach. It is described as a milieu-therapeutic recovery method, characterized by its founder as "the 24 hour a day application of interpersonal phenomenologic interventions by a nonprofessional staff, usually without neuroleptic drug treatment, in the context of a small, homelike, quiet, supportive, protective, and tolerant social environment."^[120] Although research evidence is limited, a 2008 systematic review found the programme equally as efffective as treatment with medication in people diagnosed with first and second episode schizophrenia.^[121] Soteria (Greek for deliverance) was the name given to a treatment method for newly diagnosed schizophrenia patients. ... The social environment is the direct influence of a group of individuals and their contributions to this environment, as both groups and individuals who are in frequent communication with each other within their cultural or socio-economical strata, which create role identity(-ies) and guide the individuals self (sociology... Psychosocial recovery, or the Recovery Model, refers to the process of recovery from mental disorder or substance dependence, and/or from being labeled in those terms. ...

Other

Electroconvulsive therapy is not considered a first line treatment but may be prescribed in cases where other treatments have failed. It is more effective where symptoms of catatonia are present,^[122] and is recommended for use under NICE guidelines in the UK for catatonia if previously effective, though there is no recommendation for use for schizophrenia otherwise.^[123] Psychosurgery has now become a rare procedure and is not a recommended treatment for schizophrenia.^[124] Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), also known as electroshock, is a controversial psychiatric treatment in which seizures are induced with electricity for therapeutic effect. ... A first line treatment or first line therapy is a medical therapy recommended for the initial treatment of a disease, sign or symptom, usually on the basis of empirical evidence for its efficacy. ... The National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence or NICE is an agency of the National Health Service in the United Kingdom. ... Psychosurgery is a term for surgeries of the brain involving procedures that modulate the performance of the brain, and thus effect changes in cognition, with the intent to treat or alleviate severe mental illness. ...

Service-user led movements have become integral to the recovery process in Europe and America; groups such as the Hearing Voices Network and the Paranoia Network have developed a self-help approach that aims to provide support and assistance outside the traditional medical model adopted by mainstream psychiatry. By avoiding framing personal experience in terms of criteria for mental illness or mental health, they aim to destigmatize the experience and encourage individual responsibility and a positive self-image. Partnerships between hospitals and consumer-run groups are becoming more common, with services working toward remediating social withdrawal, building social skills and reducing rehospitalization.^[125] For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... For other uses of terms redirecting here, see US (disambiguation), USA (disambiguation), and United States (disambiguation) Motto In God We Trust(since 1956) (From Many, One; Latin, traditional) Anthem The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington, D.C. Largest city New York City National language English (de facto)1 Demonym American... This article needs cleanup. ... The Paranoia Network is a self-help organization. ... A mental illness or mental disorder refers to one of many mental health conditions characterized by distress, impaired cognitive functioning, atypical behavior, emotional dysregulation, and/or maladaptive behavior. ... Mental health is a term used to describe either a level of cognitive or emotional wellbeing or an absence of mental illness. ...

Prognosis

Numerous international studies have demonstrated favorable long-term outcomes for around half of those diagnosed with schizophrenia, with substantial variation between individuals and regions.^[126] One retrospective study found that about a third of people made a full recovery, about a third showed improvement but not a full recovery, and a third remained ill.^[127] A clinical study using strict recovery criteria (concurrent remission of positive and negative symptoms and adequate social and vocational functioning continuously for two years) found a recovery rate of 14% within the first five years.^[128] A 5-year community study found that 62% showed overall improvement on a composite measure of symptomatic, clinical and functional outcomes.^[129] Rates are not always comparable across studies because an exact definition of what constitutes recovery has not been widely accepted, although standardized criteria have been suggested.^[87]

The World Health Organization conducted two long-term follow-up studies involving more than 2,000 people suffering from schizophrenia in different countries. These studies found patients have much better long-term outcomes in developing countries (India, Colombia and Nigeria) than in developed countries (USA, UK, Ireland, Denmark, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Japan, and Russia),^[130] despite the fact antipsychotic drugs are typically not widely available in poorer countries, raising questions about the effectiveness of such drug-based treatments. WHO redirects here. ...

Several factors are associated with a better prognosis: Being female, acute (vs. insidious) onset of symptoms, older age of first episode, predominantly positive (rather than negative) symptoms, presence of mood symptoms and good premorbid functioning.^[131]^[132] Most studies done on this subject, however, are correlational in nature, and a clear cause-and-effect relationship is difficult to establish. Evidence is also consistent that negative attitudes towards individuals with schizophrenia can have a significant adverse impact. In particular, critical comments, hostility, authoritarian and intrusive or controlling attitudes (termed high 'Expressed emotion' or 'EE' by researchers) from family members have been found to correlate with a higher risk of relapse in schizophrenia across cultures.^[133] Expressed emotion (EE), a qualitative measure of the amount of emotion displayed, typically in the family setting, usually by a family or group. ...

Mortality

In a study of over 168,000 Swedish citizens undergoing psychiatric treatment, schizophrenia was associated with an average life expectancy of approximately 80–85% of that of the general population. Women with a diagnosis of schizophrenia were found to have a slightly better life expectancy than that of men, and as a whole, a diagnosis of schizophrenia was associated with a better life expectancy than substance abuse, personality disorder, heart attack and stroke.^[134] There is a high suicide rate associated with schizophrenia; a recent study showed that 30% of patients diagnosed with this condition had attempted suicide at least once during their lifetime.^[135] ^[136]Another study suggested that 10% of persons with schizophrenia die by suicide.^[137] Other identified factors include smoking, poor diet, little exercise and the negative health effects of psychiatric drugs.^[6] Also see Alcoholism and Drug addiction. ... Wikinews has related news: Dr. Joseph Merlino on sexuality, insanity, Freud, fetishes and apathy Personality disorder, formerly referred to as a Character Disorder is a class of mental disorders characterized by rigid and on-going patterns of thought and action (Cognitive modules). ... Heart attack redirects here. ... For other uses, see Stroke (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Suicide (disambiguation). ...

Violence

The relationship between violent acts and schizophrenia is a contentious topic. Current research indicates that the percentage of people with schizophrenia who commit violent acts is higher than the percentage of people without any disorder, but lower than is found for disorders such as alcoholism, and the difference is reduced or not found in same-neighbourhood comparisons when related factors are taken into account, notably sociodemographic variables and substance misuse.^[138]^[139]^[140]^[141]^[142] Studies have indicated that 5% to 10% of those charged with murder in Western countries have a schizophrenia spectrum disorder.^[143]^[144]^[145]

The occurrence of psychosis in schizophrenia has sometimes been linked to a higher risk of violent acts. Findings on the specific role of delusions or hallucinations have been inconsistent, but have focused on delusional jealousy, perception of threat and command hallucinations. It has been proposed that a certain type of individual with schizophrenia may be most likely to offend, characterized by a history of educational difficulties, low IQ, conduct disorder, early-onset substance misuse and offending prior to diagnosis.^[143] For other uses, see Psychosis (disambiguation). ...

A consistent finding is that individuals with a diagnosis of schizophrenia are often the victims of violent crime—at least 14 times more often than they are perpetrators.^[146]^[147] Another consistent finding is a link to substance misuse, particularly alcohol,^[148] among the minority who commit violent acts. Violence by or against individuals with schizophrenia typically occurs in the context of complex social interactions within a family setting,^[149] and is also an issue in clinical services^[150] and in the wider community.^[151]

Screening and prevention

There are no reliable markers for the later development of schizophrenia although research is being conducted into how well a combination of genetic risk plus non-disabling psychosis-like experience predicts later diagnosis.^[152] People who fulfil the 'ultra high-risk mental state' criteria, that include a family history of schizophrenia plus the presence of transient or self-limiting psychotic experiences, have a 20–40% chance of being diagnosed with the condition after one year.^[153] The use of psychological treatments and medication has been found effective in reducing the chances of people who fulfill the 'high-risk' criteria from developing full-blown schizophrenia.^[154] However, the treatment of people who may never develop schizophrenia is controversial, in light of the side-effects of antipsychotic medication; particularly with respect to the potentially disfiguring tardive dyskinesia and the rare but potentially lethal neuroleptic malignant syndrome.^[155] The most widely used form of preventative health care for schizophrenia takes the form of public education campaigns that provide information on risk factors, early detection and treatment options.^[156] Tardive dyskinesia is a serious neurological disorder caused by the long-term and/or high-dose use of dopamine antagonists, usually antipsychotics and among them especially the typical antipsychotics. ... Neuroleptic malignant syndrome (NMS) is a life-threatening, neurological disorder most often caused by an adverse reaction to neuroleptic or antipsychotic drugs. ...

Popular views and misconceptions

Stigma has been identified as a major obstacle in the recovery of patients with schizophrenia.^[157] 12.8% of a large, representative sample of Americans in a 1999 study believed that individuals with schizophrenia were "very likely" to do something violent against others, and 48.1% said that they were "somewhat likely" to. Over 74% said that people with schizophrenia were either "not very able" or "not able at all" to make decisions concerning their treatment, and 70.2% said the same of money management decisions.^[158] The perception of individuals with psychosis as violent has more than doubled in prevalence since the 1950s, according to one meta-analysis.^[159] Look up stigma on Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

As public understanding of mental illness as a neurobiological disorder is yet developing, patients may be discouraged by friends or family members from taking prescribed medication.^[160] Consumers' views on treatment and recovery may differ from those of mental health professionals.^[90]

Alternative approaches

An approach broadly known as the anti-psychiatry movement, most active in the 1960s, opposes the orthodox medical view of schizophrenia as an illness.^[161] Psychiatrist Thomas Szasz argued that psychiatric patients are not ill, but rather individuals with unconventional thoughts and behavior that make society uncomfortable.^[162] He argues that society unjustly seeks to control them by classifying their behavior as an illness and forcibly treating them as a method of social control. According to this view, "schizophrenia" does not actually exist but is merely a form of social construction, created by society's concept of what constitutes normality and abnormality. Szasz has never considered himself to be "anti-psychiatry" in the sense of being against psychiatric treatment, but simply believes that treatment should be conducted between consenting adults, rather than imposed upon anyone against his or her will. Similarly, psychiatrists R. D. Laing, Silvano Arieti, Theodore Lidz and Colin Ross^[163] have argued that the symptoms of what is called mental illness are comprehensible reactions to impossible demands that society and particularly family life places on some sensitive individuals. Laing, Arieti, Lidz and Ross were notable in valuing the content of psychotic experience as worthy of interpretation, rather than considering it simply as a secondary but essentially meaningless marker of underlying psychological or neurological distress. Laing described eleven case studies of people diagnosed with schizophrenia and argued that the content of their actions and statements was meaningful and logical in the context of their family and life situations.^[164] In 1956, Palo Alto, Gregory Bateson and his colleagues Paul Watzlawick, Donald Jackson, and Jay Haley^[165] articulated a theory of schizophrenia, related to Laing's work, as stemming from double bind situations where a person receives different or contradictory messages. Madness was therefore an expression of this distress and should be valued as a cathartic and trans-formative experience. In the books Schizophrenia and the Family and The Origin and Treatment of Schizophrenic Disorders Lidz and his colleagues explain their belief that parental behaviour can result in mental illness in children. Arieti's Interpretation of Schizophrenia won the 1975 scientific National Book Award in the United States. Beginning in the 1960s, a movement called anti-psychiatry claimed that psychiatric patients are not ill but are individuals that do not share the same consensus reality as most people in society. ... Szasz redirects here. ... Social control refers to social mechanisms that regulate individual and group behavior, in terms of greater sanctions and rewards. ... For the learning theory, see Social Constructivism (Learning Theory). ... R.D.Laing; photo credit Robert E. Haraldsen Ronald David Laing (October 7, 1927â€“August 23, 1989), was a Scottish psychiatrist who wrote extensively on mental illness and particularly the experience of psychosis. ... Silvano Arieti was born in Pisa, Italy on June 28, 1914 and died in New York on August 7, 1981. ... Born in New York City and raised on Long Island, Dr. Lidz attended Columbia College and the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. ... Colin A. Ross is a psychiatrist of Canadian origin and professional training. ... For other uses, see Psychosis (disambiguation). ... Downtown Palo Alto Palo Alto is a city in Santa Clara County, in the San Francisco Bay Area of California, USA. Palo Alto is located at the northern end of the Silicon Valley, and is home to Stanford University (which is technically located in an adjacent area — Stanford, California), and... Gregory Bateson (9 May 1904â€“4 July 1980) was a British anthropologist, social scientist, linguist and cyberneticist whose work intersected that of many other fields. ... Paul Watzlawick Paul Watzlawick PhD (* July 25, 1921 in Villach, Austria) is one of the worlds leading theoreticians in Communication Theory and Radical Constructivism and very important inspiration in the field of family therapy and general psychotherapy. ... Don D. Jackson (1920-1968) was an American psychiatrist best known for his pioneering work in family therapy. ... Jay Douglas Haley, ((July 19, 1923 - February 13, 2007)[1] was one of the more influential psychotherapists of the 20th century [2] He was one of the founding figures of brief and family therapy and one of the more accomplished teachers, supervisors, and authors in these disciplines. ... For the type of experiment, see double-blind. ... Catharsis is the Greek Katharsis word meaning purification or cleansing derived from the ancient Greek gerund ÎºÎ±Î¸Î±Î¯ÏÎµÎ¹Î½ transliterated as kathairein to purify, purge, and adjective katharos pure or clean (ancient and modern Greek: ÎºÎ±Î¸Î±ÏÏŒÏ‚). // The term in drama refers to a sudden emotional breakdown or climax that constitutes overwhelming feelings of great... Interpretation of Schizophrenia (first edition, 1955) is a book written by psychiatrist Silvano Arieti that won the 1975 scientific National Book Award in the United States. ... The National Book Awards is one of the most preeminent literary prizes in the United States. ...

The concept of schizophrenia as a result of civilization has been developed further by psychologist Julian Jaynes in his 1976 book The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind; he proposed that until the beginning of historic times, schizophrenia or a similar condition was the normal state of human consciousness.^[166] This would take the form of a "bicameral mind" where a normal state of low affect, suitable for routine activities, would be interrupted in moments of crisis by "mysterious voices" giving instructions, which early people characterized as interventions from the gods. Researchers into shamanism have speculated that in some cultures schizophrenia or related conditions may predispose an individual to becoming a shaman;^[167] the experience of having access to multiple realities is not uncommon in schizophrenia, and is a core experience in many shamanic traditions. Equally, the shaman may have the skill to bring on and direct some of the altered states of consciousness psychiatrists label as illness. Psychohistorians, on the other hand, accept the psychiatric diagnoses. However, unlike the current medical model of mental disorders they argue that poor parenting in tribal societies causes the shaman's schizoid personalities.^[168] Speculation regarding primary and important religious figures as having schizophrenia abound. Commentators such as Paul Kurtz and others have endorsed the idea that major religious figures experienced psychosis, heard voices and displayed delusions of grandeur.^[169] Julian Jaynes Julian Jaynes (February 27, 1920 - November 21, 1997) was an American psychologist, best known for his book The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind (1976), in which he argues that ancient peoples were not conscious as we consider the term today, and that the... The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind (1976) is a controversial work of popular psychology by Julian Jaynes in which he proposes that consciousness emerged relatively recently in human history. ... The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind (1976) is a controversial work of popular psychology by Julian Jaynes in which he proposes that consciousness emerged relatively recently in human history. ... The shaman is an intellectual and spiritual figure who is regarded as possessing power and influence on other peoples in the tribe and performs several functions, primarily that of a healer ( medicine man). The shaman provides medical care, and serves other community needs during crisis times, via supernatural means (means... An altered state of consciousness is any state which is significantly different from a normative waking beta wave state. ... Psychohistory is the study of the psychological motivations of historical events. ... Biological psychiatry, or biopsychiatry is an approach to psychiatry that aims to understand mental disorder in terms of the biological function of the nervous system. ... The â€œTrauma modelâ€ of mental disorders is an expression coined by psychiatrist Colin Ross as a solution to the problem of comorbidity in the mental health field. ... Dr. Paul Kurtz Paul Kurtz (born December 21, 1925 in Newark, New Jersey) is Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at the University at Buffalo (SUNY), but is best known for his prominent role in the United States skeptical community. ...

Psychiatrist Tim Crow has argued that schizophrenia may be the evolutionary price we pay for a left brain hemisphere specialization for language.^[170] Since psychosis is associated with greater levels of right brain hemisphere activation and a reduction in the usual left brain hemisphere dominance, our language abilities may have evolved at the cost of causing schizophrenia when this system breaks down. Professor Tim Crow is a British psychiatrist and researcher. ...

Alternative medical treatments

A branch of alternative medicine that deals with schizophrenia is known as orthomolecular psychiatry. Orthomolecular psychiatry considers the schizophrenias to be a group of disorders; management entails performing the appropriate diagnostic tests and then providing the appropriate therapy.^[171] Vitamin B-3 (Niacin) has been proposed as an effective treatment in some cases.^[172] The body's adverse reactions to gluten are implicated in some alternative theories; proponents of orthomolecular psychiatric thought claim that an adverse reaction to gluten is involved in the etiology of some cases. This theory—discussed by one author in three British journals in the 1970s^[173]—is unproven. A 2006 literature review suggests that gluten may be a factor for patients with celiac disease and for a subset of patients afflicted with schizophrenia, but that further study is needed to conclusively confirm such a link.^[174] Some researchers suggest that dietary and nutritional treatments may hold promise in the treatment of schizophrenia.^[175] Alternative medicine has been described as any of various systems of healing or treating disease (as chiropractic, homeopathy, or faith healing) not included in the traditional medical curricula taught in the United States and Britain.[1] Alternative medicine practices are often based in belief systems not derived from modern science. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Niacin, also known as nicotinic acid or vitamin B3, is a water-soluble vitamin whose derivatives such as NADH, NAD, NAD+, and NADP play essential roles in energy metabolism in the living cell and DNA repair. ... Wheat - a prime source of gluten Gluten is an amorphous mixture of ergastic (i. ... A gluten-free casein-free diet (or GFCF diet) eliminates intake of the naturally-occurring proteins gluten (found naturally in wheat, barley, and rye) and casein (found in milk). ...

History

Descriptions of schizophrenia-like symptoms date back to circa 2000 BC in the Book of Hearts—part of the ancient Egyptian Ebers Papyrus. However, study of the ancient Greek and Roman literature shows that although the general population probably had an awareness of psychotic disorders, there was no recorded condition that would meet the modern criteria for schizophrenia.^[176] Symptoms resembling schizophrenia were, however, reported in Arabic medical and psychological literature during the Middle Ages. In The Canon of Medicine, for example, Avicenna described a condition somewhat resembling schizophrenia which he called Junun Mufrit (severe madness), which he distinguished from other forms of madness (Junun) such as mania, rabies and manic depressive psychosis.^[177] To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Ebers medical papyrus giving the treatment of cancer. ... The term ancient Greece refers to the periods of Greek history in Classical Antiquity, lasting ca. ... Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... In the history of medicine, Islamic medicine or Arabic medicine refers to medicine developed in the medieval Islamic civilisation and written in Arabic, the lingua franca of the Islamic civilization. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... A Latin copy of the Canon of Medicine, dated 1484, located at the P.I. Nixon Medical Historical Library of The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio. ... (Persian: Ø§Ø¨Ù† Ø³ÙŠÙ†Ø§) (c. ... This article is an expansion of a section entitled Mania from within the main article Bipolar disorder. ... For other uses, see Bipolar. ... For other uses, see Psychosis (disambiguation). ...

Although a broad concept of madness has existed for thousands of years, schizophrenia was only classified as a distinct mental disorder by Emil Kraepelin in 1893. He was the first to make a distinction in the psychotic disorders between what he called dementia praecox (early dementia—a term first used by psychiatrist Bénédict Morel [1809–1873]) and manic depression. Kraepelin believed that dementia praecox was primarily a disease of the brain,^[178] and particularly a form of dementia, distinguished from other forms of dementia, such as Alzheimer's disease, which typically occur later in life.^[179] Photo of psychiatrist Emil Kraeplin This image is in the public domain in the United States and possibly other jurisdictions. ... Photo of psychiatrist Emil Kraeplin This image is in the public domain in the United States and possibly other jurisdictions. ... Emil Kraepelin (February 15, 1856â€“October 7, 1926) was a German psychiatrist who attempted to create a synthesis of the hundreds of mental disorders classified by the 19th century, grouping diseases together based on classification of common patterns of symptoms, rather than by simple similarity of major symptoms in the... For other uses, see Psychosis (disambiguation). ... â€¹ The template below (Expand) is being considered for deletion. ... Emil Kraepelin (February 15, 1856â€“October 7, 1926) was a German psychiatrist who attempted to create a synthesis of the hundreds of mental disorders classified by the 19th century, grouping diseases together based on classification of common patterns of symptoms, rather than by simple similarity of major symptoms in the... This article includes a list of works cited or a list of external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ... BÃ©nÃ©dict Augustin Morel (November 22, 1809â€“March 30, 1873), was an Austrian-French physician who was a seminal figure in the field of psychiatry in 19th century Europe. ... For other uses, see Bipolar. ... For other uses, see Dementia (disambiguation). ...

The word schizophrenia—which translates roughly as "splitting of the mind" and comes from the Greek roots schizein (σχίζειν, "to split") and phrēn, phren- (φρήν, φρεν-, "mind")^[180]—was coined by Eugen Bleuler in 1908 and was intended to describe the separation of function between personality, thinking, memory, and perception. Bleuler described the main symptoms as 4 A's: flattened Affect, Autism, impaired Association of ideas and Ambivalence.^[181] Bleuler realized that the illness was not a dementia as some of his patients improved rather than deteriorated and hence proposed the term schizophrenia instead. For other uses, see Mind (disambiguation). ... Eugene Bleuler (b. ... Personality psychology is a branch of psychology which studies personality and individual differences. ... Personification of thought (Greek Î•Î½Î½Î¿Î¹Î±) in Celsus Library in Ephesos, Turkey Thought or thinking is a mental process which allows beings to model the world, and so to deal with it effectively according to their goals, plans, ends and desires. ... For other uses, see Memory (disambiguation). ... In psychology and the cognitive sciences, perception is the process of acquiring, interpreting, selecting, and organizing sensory information. ... For other uses, see Dementia (disambiguation). ...

The term schizophrenia is commonly misunderstood to mean that affected persons have a "split personality". Although some people diagnosed with schizophrenia may hear voices and may experience the voices as distinct personalities, schizophrenia does not involve a person changing among distinct multiple personalities. The confusion arises in part due to the meaning of Bleuler's term schizophrenia (literally "split" or "shattered mind"). The first known misuse of the term to mean "split personality" was in an article by the poet T. S. Eliot in 1933.^[182] Thomas Stearns Eliot, OM (September 26, 1888 â€“ January 4, 1965), was a poet, dramatist and literary critic. ...

In the first half of the twentieth century schizophrenia was considered to be a hereditary defect, and sufferers were subject to eugenics in many countries. Hundreds of thousands were sterilized, with or without consent—the majority in Nazi Germany, the United States, and Scandinavian countries.^[183]^[184] Along with other people labeled "mentally unfit", many diagnosed with schizophrenia were murdered in the Nazi "Action T4" program.^[185] Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution: Logo from the Second International Eugenics Conference [7], 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields. ... Sterilization is a surgical technique leaving a male or female unable to procreate. ... Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ... For other uses, see Scandinavia (disambiguation). ... This poster reads: 60,000 Reichsmarks is what this person suffering from hereditary defects costs the community during his lifetime. ...

The diagnostic description of schizophrenia has changed over time. It became clear after the 1971 US-UK Diagnostic Study that schizophrenia was diagnosed to a far greater extent in America than in Europe.^[186] This was partly due to looser diagnostic criteria in the US, which used the DSM-II manual, contrasting with Europe and its ICD-9. This was one of the factors in leading to the revision not only of the diagnosis of schizophrenia, but the revision of the whole DSM manual, resulting in the publication of the DSM-III.^[187] The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association, is the handbook used most often in diagnosing mental disorders in the United States and other countries. ... The International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (commonly known by the abbreviation ICD) is a detailed description of known diseases and injuries. ... The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association, is the handbook used most often in diagnosing mental disorders in the United States and other countries. ...

Cultural references

The book and film A Beautiful Mind chronicled the life of John Forbes Nash, a Nobel-Prize-winning mathematician who was diagnosed with schizophrenia. The Marathi film Devrai (Featuring Atul Kulkarni) is a presentation of a patient with schizophrenia. The film, set in the Konkan region of Maharashtra in Western India, shows the behavior, mentality, and struggle of the patient as well as his loved-ones. It also portrays the treatment of this mental illness using medication, dedication and plenty of patience by the close relatives of the patient. Other factual books have been written by relatives on family members; Australian journalist Anne Deveson told the story of her son's battle with schizophrenia in Tell me I'm Here,^[188] later made into a movie. A Beautiful Mind is a 2001 American biographical film about John Forbes Nash, the Nobel Laureate (Economics) mathematician. ... John Forbes Nash, Jr. ... The Nobel Prize (Swedish: ) was established in Alfred Nobels will in 1895, and it was first awarded in Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and Peace in 1901. ... Marathi (à¤®à¤°à¤¾à¤ à¥€ ) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by the Marathi people of western India. ... Atul Kulkarni (born [[September 10 1965]in an maharashtrian bramhin family], ) is an Indian Actor who has won two National Awards. ... It has been suggested that History of the Konkan be merged into this article or section. ... , Maharashtra (Marathi: à¤®à¤¹à¤¾à¤°à¤¾à¤·à¥à¤Ÿà¥à¤° , IPA , translation: Great Nation) is Indias third largest state in area and second largest in population after Uttar Pradesh. ...

In Bulgakov's Master and Margarita the poet Ivan Bezdomnyj is institutionalized and diagnosed with schizophrenia after witnessing the devil (Woland) predict Berlioz's death. The book The Eden Express by Mark Vonnegut recounts his struggle into schizophrenia and his journey back to sanity. Mikhail Afanasievich Bulgakov (Russian: ÐœÐ¸Ñ…Ð°Ð¸Ð» ÐÑ„Ð°Ð½Ð°ÑÑŒÐµÐ²Ð¸Ñ‡ Ð‘ÑƒÐ»Ð³Ð°ÐºÐ¾Ð²; May 15 [O.S. May 3] 1891, Kiev â€“ March 10, 1940, Moscow) was a Russian novelist and playwright of the first half of the 20th century. ... The Master and Margarita book cover. ... The Eden Express: A Memoir of Insanity, is a 1975 book by Mark Vonnegut, son of American writer Kurt Vonnegut, about his experiences in the late 1960s and his major psychotic breakdown and recovery. ... Mark Vonnegut is an American pediatrician and writer He is the son of noted writer Kurt Vonnegut Jr. ...

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id="Further_reading"> 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Public Library of Science (PLoS) is a nonprofit open access scientific publishing project aimed at creating a library of open access journals and other scientific literature under an open content license. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... The American Journal of Psychiatry (AJP) is the most widely read psychiatric journal in the world. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Science is the journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... The American Journal of Psychiatry (AJP) is the most widely read psychiatric journal in the world. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 282nd day of the year (283rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 136th day of the year (137th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The British Medical Journal (BMJ) is a medical journal published weekly in the United Kingdom by the British Medical Association (BMA)which published its first issue in 1845. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Archives of General Psychiatry is a monthly professional medical journal published by the American Medical Association. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... WHO redirects here. ... National Institutes of Health Building 50 at NIH Clinical Center - Building 10 The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services and is the primary agency of the United States government responsible for biomedical research. ... The Lancet is one of the oldest and most respected peer-reviewed medical journals in the world, published weekly by Elsevier, part of Reed Elsevier. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Nature Neuroscience is a scientific journal published by Nature Publishing Group, the publisher of Nature. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Lancet is one of the oldest and most respected peer-reviewed medical journals in the world, published weekly by Elsevier, part of Reed Elsevier. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Human Molecular Genetics is a semimonthly scientific journal published by The Oxford University Press. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Trends logo Trends is a series of scientific journals owned by Elsevier that produce review articles. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease is a scholarly journal on psychopathology. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Systematic reviews are named as the highest level of medical evidence, by evidence based medicine professionals. ... A meta-analysis is a statistical practice of combining the results of a number of studies. ... Northern hemisphere highlighted in yellow. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Lancet is one of the oldest and most respected peer-reviewed medical journals in the world, published weekly by Elsevier, part of Reed Elsevier. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 55th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 136th day of the year (137th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Trends logo Trends is a series of scientific journals owned by Elsevier that produce review articles. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... The American Journal of Psychiatry (AJP) is the most widely read psychiatric journal in the world. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Technical advancements in recent years have allowed progress toward the understanding of the brain and how drugs can be made to affect it. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... New York Academy of Sciences is a society of some 20,000 scientists of all disciplines from 150 countries. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Lancet is one of the oldest and most respected peer-reviewed medical journals in the world, published weekly by Elsevier, part of Reed Elsevier. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) will be a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (common) era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 57th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 137th day of the year (138th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The New England Journal of Medicine (NEJM) is a peer-reviewed medical journal published by the Massachusetts Medical Society. ... Systematic reviews are named as the highest level of medical evidence, by evidence based medicine professionals. ... The Lancet is one of the oldest and most respected peer-reviewed medical journals in the world, published weekly by Elsevier, part of Reed Elsevier. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... is the 322nd day of the year (323rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 137th day of the year (138th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Systematic reviews are named as the highest level of medical evidence, by evidence based medicine professionals. ... Edwin Fuller Torrey, M.D. (b. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 168th day of the year (169th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 168th day of the year (169th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 137th day of the year (138th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 137th day of the year (138th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 136th day of the year (137th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The American Journal of Public Health (AJPH) is a peer reviewed monthly journal of the American Public Health Association (APHA). ... Please wikify (format) this article as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 137th day of the year (138th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Dr. Paul Kurtz Paul Kurtz (born December 21, 1925 in Newark, New Jersey) is Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at the University at Buffalo (SUNY), but is best known for his prominent role in the United States skeptical community. ... Prometheus Books is a publishing company founded in August 1969 by Paul Kurtz and publishes scientific, educational, and popular books, especially those of a secular humanist or scientific skepticism nature. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Systematic reviews are named as the highest level of medical evidence, by evidence based medicine professionals. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... German E. Berrios is a Professor of Psychiatry at Cambridge University in the UK. He was born in Tacna (PerÃº) and studied medicine and philosophy at the University of San Marcos (Lima, PerÃº). Subsequently, he read psychology and philosophy at Corpus Christi College, Oxford University, where he was a scholar... Roy Porter (31 December 1946 to 3 March 2002) was a British historian noted for his work on the history of medicine. ...

Contents

Signs and symptoms

Schneiderian classification

Positive and negative symptoms

Diagnosis

DSM IV-TR Criteria

Subtypes

Diagnostic issues and controversies

Epidemiology

Causes

Genetic

Prenatal

Social

Substance use

Psychological

Neural

Treatment and services

Medication

Psychological and social interventions

Other

Prognosis

Mortality

Violence

Screening and prevention

Popular views and misconceptions

Alternative approaches

Alternative medical treatments

History

Cultural references

References

Further reading

External links

Contents

Signs and symptoms GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Schneiderian classification

Positive and negative symptoms

Diagnosis

DSM IV-TR Criteria

Subtypes

Diagnostic issues and controversies

Epidemiology

Causes

Genetic

Prenatal

Social

Substance use

Psychological

Neural

Treatment and services

Medication

Psychological and social interventions

Other

Prognosis

Mortality

Violence

Screening and prevention

Popular views and misconceptions

Alternative approaches

Alternative medical treatments

History

Cultural references

References

Further reading

External links

Signs and symptoms