Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major (Latin: P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS¹) (235–183 BC) was a general in the Second Punic War and statesman of the Roman Republic. He was best known for defeating Hannibal of Carthage, a feat that earned him the surname Africanus, the nickname the Roman Hannibal and recognition as one of the finest commanders in military history. Cornelius (fem. ... Scipio (plural, Scipiones) is a Roman cognomen used by a branch of the Cornelii family. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC - 230s BC - 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC Years: 240 BC 239 BC 238 BC 237 BC 236 BC - 235 BC - 234 BC 233 BC... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC - 180s BC - 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC Years: 188 BC 187 BC 186 BC 185 BC 184 BC - 183 BC - 182 BC 181 BC... Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Publius Cornelius Scipio†, Tiberius Sempronius Longus Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, Gaius Flaminius†, Fabius Maximus, Claudius Marcellus†, Lucius Aemilius Paullus†, Gaius Terentius Varro, Marcus Livius Salinator, Gaius Claudius Nero, Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus†, Masinissa, Minucius+, Geminus+, Regulus+ Hannibal Barca, Hasdrubal Barca†, Mago Barca†, Hasdrubal Gisco†, Maharbal... This article is becoming very long. ... Hannibal is one of the most common prenames in Punic and we know several military commanders (strategos) with this prename during the Punic Wars, while their family names or nicknames are often not recorded. ... Ruins of Roman-era Carthage The term Carthage (Greek: , Arabic: قرطاج also قرطاجة, Latin: Carthago) refers both to an ancient city in North Africa located in modern day Tunis and to the civilization that developed within the citys sphere of influence. ...

Scipio Africanus

Gold signet ring from Capua (late 3rd or early 2nd century B.C.) signed by Herakliedes, and bearing the portrait of Scipio Africanus. ... Gold signet ring from Capua (late 3rd or early 2nd century B.C.) signed by Herakliedes, and bearing the portrait of Scipio Africanus. ...

Biography

Early years

Scipio (L., rod or staff) was born in 236 BC in Rome into the Scipio branch of the Cornelii family. Several ancestors had been consuls successively, and his great-grandfather, Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, had been patrician censor in 280 BC. The Cornelii were counted among the six major patrician families—the others being the Manlii, the Fabii, the Aemilii, the Claudii, and the Valerii—and at the time Scipio Africanus lived, the Scipiones were probably its most prominent branch. Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 280s BC 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC - 230s BC - 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC Years: 241 BC 240 BC 239 BC 238 BC 237 BC - 236 BC - 235 BC 234 BC... Nickname: The Eternal City Motto: SPQR: Senatus PopulusQue Romanus Location of the city of Rome (yellow) within the Province of Rome (red) and region of Lazio (grey) Coordinates: Region Lazio Province Province of Rome Founded 21 April 753 BC Mayor Walter Veltroni Area    - City 1,500 km²  (580 sq mi... Scipio (plural, Scipiones) is a Roman cognomen used by a branch of the Cornelii family. ... Cornelius (fem. ... For modern diplomatic consuls, see Consulate general. ... For omission and secrecy, see censorship. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 330s BC 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC - 280s BC - 270s BC 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 285 BC 284 BC 283 BC 282 BC 281 BC 280 BC 279 BC 278 BC 277...

Scipio was the elder son of Publius Cornelius Scipio, praetor and consul, by his wife Pomponia, who was apparently of a prominently knightly and plebeian family. Scipio was known to have visited the temple daily as he took dreams about gods and omens seriously. He is also thought to have consulted with, or at least informed his mother before deciding to run for curule aedile, the most junior magistrate who was entitled to enter the Senate. Scipio ran for this office at the age of 24. His younger brother was Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus. Little else is known about his childhood. Publius Cornelius Scipio (died 211 BC) was a general and statesman of the Roman Republic. ...

Early Military Service

At an early age, Scipio joined the Roman struggle against Carthage in the Second Punic War. At some point, he is said to have promised his father to continue the struggle against Carthage all his life, showing similar dedication to that of his enemy, Hannibal. Ruins of Roman-era Carthage The term Carthage (Greek: , Arabic: قرطاج also قرطاجة, Latin: Carthago) refers both to an ancient city in North Africa located in modern day Tunis and to the civilization that developed within the citys sphere of influence. ... Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Publius Cornelius Scipio†, Tiberius Sempronius Longus Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, Gaius Flaminius†, Fabius Maximus, Claudius Marcellus†, Lucius Aemilius Paullus†, Gaius Terentius Varro, Marcus Livius Salinator, Gaius Claudius Nero, Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus†, Masinissa, Minucius+, Geminus+, Regulus+ Hannibal Barca, Hasdrubal Barca†, Mago Barca†, Hasdrubal Gisco†, Maharbal...

The young Scipio survived the disastrous battles at the Ticinus, the Trebia, and the Cannae. According to one tradition, he saved his father's life when he was 18, at the Battle of Ticinus. Scipio's would-be father-in-law Lucius Aemilius Paullus was killed in 216 BC at the third of these battles, the Battle of Cannae. Despite these defeats at the hands of the Carthaginians, Scipio remained focused on securing Roman victory. Combatants Carthage Roman Republic Commanders Hannibal Publius Cornelius Scipio the elder Strength 6,000 cavalry unknown Casualties small small The Battle of Ticinus was a battle of the Second Punic War fought between the Carthaginian forces of Hannibal and the Romans under Publius Cornelius Scipio in November 218 BC. It... Battle of the Trebia Conflict Second Punic War Date 18 December 218 BC Place Trebbia river, Italy Result Carthaginian victory The Battle of the Trebia (or Trebbia) was a battle of the Second Punic War fought between the Carthaginian forces of Hannibal and the Romans in 218 BC. Hannibals... For the eleventh century battle in the Byzantine conquest of the Mezzogiorno, see Battle of Cannae (1018). ... Publius Cornelius Scipio (died 211 BC) was a general and statesman of the Roman Republic. ... Lucius Aemilius Paullus (d. ... Ruins of Roman-era Carthage The term Carthage (Greek: , Arabic: قرطاج also قرطاجة, Latin: Carthago) refers both to an ancient city in North Africa located in modern day Tunis and to the civilization that developed within the citys sphere of influence. ...

On hearing that Lucius Caecilius Metellus and other politicians were at the point of surrender, Scipio gathered with his followers and stormed into the meeting, where at sword-point he forced all present to swear that they would continue in faithful service to Rome. Fortunately, the Roman Senate was of like mind and refused to entertain thoughts of peace despite the great losses Rome had taken in the war—approximately one-fifth of the men of military age had died within a few years. The Caecilii Metellii was one of the most important and wealthiest families in the Roman Republic. ...

Scipio offered himself as a candidate for the curule aedileship in the year 212 BC, apparently to assist his less popular cousin, Lucius Cornelius, who was also standing for election. The Tribunes of the Plebs (elected representatives from the Plebeian Assembly) objected to his candidacy, saying that he could not be allowed to stand because he had not yet reached the legal age—curule aediles were automatically entitled to enter the Senate and the legal age for Senate membership was 30. Scipio's reply was, "If the quirites [Roman citizens] are unanimous in their desire to appoint me Aedile, I am quite old enough..."^{[citation needed]} Scipio, already known for his bravery and patriotism, was elected unanimously and the Tribunes abandoned their opposition. Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC - 210s BC - 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC Years: 217 BC 216 BC 215 BC 214 BC 213 BC - 212 BC - 211 BC 210 BC...

Campaign in Hispania

Nicholas Poussin's painting of the Continence of Scipio, depicting his return of a captured young woman to her fiancé, having refused to accept her from his troops as a prize of war.

In 211 BC, both Scipio's father, Publius Scipio, and uncle, Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus, were killed in battle against Hannibal's brother, Hasdrubal Barca. In the following year, Scipio offered himself for the command of the new army which the Romans resolved to send to Hispania. In spite of his youth, his noble demeanor and enthusiastic language had made so great an impression that he was unanimously elected to be sent there as proconsul (According to Livy, Scipio was the only man brave enough to ask for this position, and no other candidates wanted the responsibility, considering it a death sentence [Livy Book XXVI, Chapter XVIII]. In the year of Scipio's arrival (210 BC), all of Hispania south of the Ebro river was under Carthaginian control. Hannibal's brothers Hasdrubal and Mago, and Hasdrubal Gisco were the generals of the Carthaginian forces in Hispania, and Rome was aided by the inability of these three figures to act in concert. The Carthaginians were also preoccupied with revolts in Africa. Image File history File links Poussinscipio. ... Image File history File links Poussinscipio. ... Et in Arcadia ego by Nicolas Poussin. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC - 210s BC - 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC Years: 216 BC 215 BC 214 BC 213 BC 212 BC - 211 BC - 210 BC 209 BC... Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus (d. ... Hasdrubal Barca (d. ... Roman theater at Mérida; the statues are replicas Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra and Gibraltar) and to two provinces created there in the period of the Roman Republic: Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior. ... For the Miocene ape, see Proconsul (genus) Under the Roman Empire a proconsul was a promagistrate filling the office of a consul. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 260s BC 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC - 210s BC - 200s BC 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC Years: 215 BC 214 BC 213 BC 212 BC 211 BC - 210 BC - 209 BC 208 BC... The Ebro (Greek: Έβρος, Latin: Iberus, Spanish: Ebro, Catalan: Ebre) is Spains most voluminous and second longest river. ... Mago Barca (also spelled Magon) (243 BC - 203 BC), brother of the Carthaginian General Hannibal, he played a major role in the Second Punic War against Rome. ... Hasdrubal Gisco was a Carthaginian general during the Second Punic War. ...

Scipio landed at the mouth of the Ebro and was able to surprise and capture Carthago Nova, the headquarters of the Carthaginian power in Hispania. He obtained a rich cache of war stores and supplies, and an excellent harbor and base of operations. Scipio's humanitarian conduct toward prisoners and hostages in Hispania helped in portraying the Romans as liberators as opposed to conquerors. Livy tells the story of the capture of a beautiful woman by his troops, who offered her to Scipio as a prize of war. Scipio, astonished by her beauty, thanked his troops but discovered that the woman was betrothed to a local chieftain. He returned her to her fiancé, along with the money that had been offered by her parents to ransom her. While Scipio was long known for his great chivalry, Scipio doubtless also realized that the Senate's first priority was the war in Italy, and in the midst of the Carthaginian base in Hispania, he was to be outnumbered without much hope of reinforcement. It was paramount therefore that Scipio cooperate with local chieftains to both supply and reinforce his small army. The woman's fiance—who soon married her—naturally brought over his tribe to support the Roman armies.^{[citation needed]} Carthago Nova (New Carthage, Carthage already meaning new city in Punic) is the Latin name of the most important Carthaginian coastal trading colony in Spain. ...

In 209 BC, Scipio fought his first set piece battle, driving back Hasdrubal Barca from his position at Baecula on the upper Guadalquivir. Scipio feared that the armies of Mago and Gisco would enter the field and surround his small army. Scipio's objective was, therefore, to quickly eliminate one of the armies to give him the luxury of dealing with the other two piecemeal. The battle was decided by a determined Roman infantry charge up the center of the Carthaginian position. Roman losses are uncertain but may have been considerable in light of an effort by the infantry to scale an elevation defended by Carthaginian light infantry. Scipio then orchestrated a frontal attack by the rest of his infantry to draw out the remainder of the Carthaginian forces. Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 214 BC 213 BC 212 BC 211 BC 210 BC - 209 BC - 208 BC 207 BC... The Battle of Baecula was Scipio Africanus’s first major field battle after he had taken command of Roman interests in Spain during the Second Punic War, in which he routed the Carthaginian army under the command of Hasdrubal Barca. ... The Guadalquivir is the second longest river in Spain (after the Tagus). ...

Hasdrubal had not noticed Scipio's hidden reserves of cavalry moving behind enemy lines, and a Roman cavalry charge created a double envelopment on either flank led by cavalry commander Gaius Laelius and Scipio himself. This broke the back of Hasdrubal's army and routed his forces—an impressive feat for the young Roman versus the veteran Carthaginian general. Despite a Roman victory, Scipio was unable to hinder the Carthaginian march to Italy. Much historical criticism has been leveled at his inability to effectively pursue Hasdrubal, who would eventually cross the Alps only to be defeated by Gaius Claudius Nero at the Battle of the Metaurus. Gaius Laelius, general and statesman, was a friend of the elder Scipio, whom he accompanied on his Spanish campaign (210 BC - 206 BC). ... Gaius Claudius Nero was a Roman consul who fought in the Battle of the Metaurus. ... The Battle of the Metaurus was a pivotal battle in the ancient conflict between Rome and Carthage, fought in 207 BC near the Metaurus River in Italy. ...

One popular theory for Scipio's failure to pursue Hasdrubal is that Scipio merely wanted the glory of securing Spain, and an extended mountain campaign would have endangered that. Others cite the Roman soldiers' appetite for plunder as preventing him from rallying in pursuit. The most probable explanation from a strategic standpoint is Scipio's unwillingness to risk being trapped between Hasdrubal's army on one side and one or both of Gisgo's and Mago's armies, both of superior numerical strength. Mere days after Hasdrubal's defeat, Mago and Gisgo were able to converge in front of the Roman positions, bringing into question what would have happened had Scipio pursued Hasdrubal.

After winning over a number of Hispanian chiefs, Scipio achieved a decisive victory in 206 BC over the full Carthaginian levy at Ilipa (now the city of Alcalá del Río, near Hispalis, now called Seville), which resulted in the evacuation of Hispania by the Punic commanders. Second Punic War: Scipio Africanus Major destroyed the combined Carthaginian army of Mago Barca and Hasdrubal Gisco in the Battle of Ilipa, thus ending Carthaginian hold in Spain. ... The Battle of Ilipa was a battle of the Second Punic War. ... Alcalá del Río is a municipality in Seville, Spain. ... This article is about the city in Spain. ... NO8DO (I was not abandoned) Location Coordinates : ( ) Time Zone : CET (GMT +1) - summer: CEST (GMT +2) General information Native name Sevilla (Spanish) Spanish name Sevilla Founded 8th-9th century BC Postal code 41001-41080 Website http://www. ...

After his rapid success in conquering Spain, and with the idea of striking a blow at Carthage in Africa, Scipio paid a short visit to the Numidian princes Syphax and Massinissa. Numidia was of vital importance to Carthage, supplying both mercenaries and allied forces. In addition to supplying the Numidian cavalry (on which see the Battle of Cannae), Numidia operated as a buffer for vulnerable Carthage. Scipio managed to receive support from both Syphax and Massinissa. Syphax later changed his mind, married the beautiful Carthaginian noblewoman Sophonisba, daughter of Hasdrubal the son of Gisco, and fought alongside his Carthaginian in-laws against Massinissa and Scipio in Africa. Carthage and the Berbers Phoenician traders arrived on the North African coast around 900 BC and established Carthage (in present-day Tunisia) around 800 BC. By the sixth century BC, a Phoenician presence existed at Tipasa (east of Cherchell in Algeria). ... Numidia was an ancient African Berber kingdom and later a Roman province on the northern coast of Africa between the province of Africa (where Tunisia is now) and the province of Mauretania (which is now the western part of Algerias coastal area). ... Syphax was a king of the Masaesyles of western Numidia. ... Masinissa (c. ... For the eleventh century battle in the Byzantine conquest of the Mezzogiorno, see Battle of Cannae (1018). ... For the Renaissance painter Sofonisba Anguissola (ca. ...

On his return to Hispania, Scipio had to quell a mutiny which had broken out among his troops. Hannibal's brother Hasdrubal had meanwhile marched for Italy, and in 206 BC Scipio himself, having secured the Roman occupation of Hispania by the capture of Gades, gave up his command and returned to Rome. Second Punic War: Scipio Africanus Major destroyed the combined Carthaginian army of Mago Barca and Hasdrubal Gisco in the Battle of Ilipa, thus ending Carthaginian hold in Spain. ... Nickname: Tacita de plata (little silver cup) Location within Spain Province Cádiz Mayor Teófila Martínez (PP) Area    - City 12. ...

African Campaign

In the following year (205 BC), Scipio was unanimously elected to the consulship at the age of 31. Scipio wanted to go to Africa, but his jealous enemies in the Roman senate only allowed him to go as far as Sicily and did not grant him an army. Nevertheless, Scipio raised and trained a volunteer army while in Sicily. Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 210 BC 209 BC 208 BC 207 BC 206 BC - 205 BC - 204 BC 203 BC... Consul (abbrev. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa. ... The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus) was the main governing council of both the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BC, and the Roman Empire, which ended in the 6th century AD. The word Senatus is derived from the Latin word senex, meaning old man or elder. ... Sicily (Sicilia in Italian, Sicilian and Spanish, Σικελία in Greek) is an autonomous region of Italy and the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, with an area of 25,700 km² and 5 million inhabitants. ...

By this time, Hannibal's movements were restricted to the southwestern toe of Italy. Scipio was intent on transferring the war to Africa, and his great name drew to him a number of volunteers from all parts of Italy. Interestingly, among these volunteers were the shamed survivors of the fiasco at the Battle of Cannae, anxious to once again prove their worth as soldiers. Scipio began creating Sicily as a training camp and a staging point for his conceived invasion.

Scipio, his brother and his father, realized that the Carthaginian, and especially Numidian superiority in cavalry would prove decisive against the largely infantry forces of the Roman legions. In addition, a large portion of Rome's cavalry were allies of questionable loyalty, or noble equites exempting themselves from being lowly foot soldiers. One anecdote tells of how Scipio pressed into service several hundred Sicilian nobles to create a cavalry force. The Sicilians were quite opposed to this servitude to a foreign occupier (Sicily being under Roman control only since the First Punic War), and protested vigorously. Scipio assented to their exemption from service providing they pay for a horse, equipment, and a replacement rider for the Roman Army. In this way, Scipio created a trained nucleus of cavalry for his African campaign. An Equestrian (Latin eques, plural equites) was a member of one of the two upper social classes in the Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. ... Combatants Roman Republic Carthage Commanders Marcus Atilius Regulus Gaius Lutatius Catulus Hamilcar Barca Hanno the Great Hasdrubal Xanthippus The First Punic War (264 to 241 BC) was the first of three major wars fought between Carthage and the Roman Republic. ...

The Roman Senate sent a commission of inquiry to Sicily and found that Scipio was at the head of a well-equipped and trained fleet and army. Scipio pressed the Senate for permission to cross into Africa. The conservative branch of the Roman Senate, championed by Fabius Maximus, the Cunctator (Delayer), opposed the mission. Fabius still feared Hannibal's power, and viewed any mission to Africa as dangerous and wasteful to the war effort. Scipio was also harmed by some senators' disdain of his Hellenophile tastes in art, luxuries, and philosophies. The introduction (205 BC) of the Phrygian worship of Cybele and the transference of the image of the goddess herself from Pessinus to Rome to bless the expedition may have affected public opinion against Scipio as well. All Scipio could obtain was permission to cross over from Sicily to Africa if it appeared to be in the interests of Rome, but not financial or military support. Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus (c. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 210 BC 209 BC 208 BC 207 BC 206 BC - 205 BC - 204 BC 203 BC... Location of Phrygia - traditional region (yellow) - expanded kingdom (orange line) In antiquity, Phrygia (Greek: ) was a kingdom in the west central part of the Anatolian Highland, part of modern Turkey. ... Cybele with her attributes. ... Pessinus was the city in Asia Minor (presently Anatolia, the Asian part of Turkey) on the upper course of the river Sangarios (modern day Sakarya River), 120 SW of Akara, from which the mythological King Midas is said to have ruled a greater Phrygian realm. ... Nickname: The Eternal City Motto: SPQR: Senatus PopulusQue Romanus Location of the city of Rome (yellow) within the Province of Rome (red) and region of Lazio (grey) Coordinates: Region Lazio Province Province of Rome Founded 21 April 753 BC Mayor Walter Veltroni Area    - City 1,500 km²  (580 sq mi...

At the commissioners' bidding, Scipio sailed in 204 BC and landed near Utica. Carthage, meanwhile, had secured the friendship of the Numidian Syphax, whose advance compelled Scipio to abandon the siege of Utica and dig in on the shore between there and Carthage. The following year he destroyed the combined armies of the Carthaginians and Numidians by approaching by stealth and setting fire to the Carthaginian-Numidian camp, where the combined army became panic stricken and fled only to be destroyed by Scipio's army. Though not a "battle," both Polybius and Livy estimate that the death toll in this single attack exceeded 40,000 Carthaginian and Numidian dead, and more captured. Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 209 BC 208 BC 207 BC 206 BC 205 BC - 204 BC - 203 BC 202 BC... Utica was a Phoenician colony, on the African coast, near Carthage. ... The Numidians were tribes who lived in Algeria east of Constantine and in part of Tunisia. ...

Historians are roughly equal in their praise and condemnation for this act. Polybius said, "of all the brilliant exploits performed by Scipio this seems to me the most brilliant and more adventurous." On the other hand, one of Hannibal's principal biographers, Theodore Ayrault Dodge, goes so far to suggest that this attack was out of cowardice and spares no more than a page upon the event in total, despite the fact that it secured the siege of Utica and effectively put Syphax out of the war. The irony of Dodge's accusations of Scipio's cowardice is the attack showed traces of Hannibal's penchant for ambush. Theodore Ayrault Dodge (28 May 1842–1909) was a Union officer in the American Civil War and a military historian of both that war and of the great generals of ancient and European history. ...

Scipio quickly dispatched his two lieutenants, Laelius and Masinissa, to pursue Syphax. These lieutenants ultimately dethroned Syphax, and ensured Prince Masinissa's coronation as King of the Numidians. Carthage, and especially Hannibal himself, had long relied upon these superb natural horsemen who would now fight for Rome and against Carthage.

War with Hannibal, the Battle of Zama

With Carthage now deserted by her allies, and surrounded by a veteran and undefeated Roman army which Dodge states was the best ever fielded, Carthage began opening diplomatic channels for negotiation. At this, Hannibal Barca returned to Carthage, and despite the moderate terms offered to Carthage by Scipio, Carthage suddenly suspended negotiations and again prepared for war. The army that Hannibal returned with is a subject of much debate. Advocates for Hannibal often claim that his army was mostly Italians pressed into service from Southern Italy, and that most of his elite veterans (and certainly cavalry) were spent. Scipio's advocates tend to be far more suspicious, and believe the number of veteran forces to remain significant.

Hannibal did have a trained pool of soldiers who had fought personally in Italy, as well as eighty massive war elephants. Hannibal could boast a strength of 58,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry, compared to Scipio's 34,000 infantry and 8,700 cavalry. The two generals met on a plain between Carthage and Utica on October 19, 202 BC, at the Zama. Despite mutual admiration, negotiations floundered due largely to Roman distrust of the Carthaginians as a result of the Carthaginian attack on Saguntum, the breach of protocols which ended the First Punic War (known as Punic Faith), and a perceived breach in contemporary military etiquette due to Hannibal's numerous ambushes. October 19 is the 292nd day of the year (293rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 3rd century BC - 4th century BC Decades: 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC Years: 207 BC 206 BC 205 BC 204 BC 203 BC - 202 BC - 201 BC 200 BC 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC Events October... Combatants Carthage Roman Republic East Numidia Commanders Hannibal Scipio Africanus Masinissa Strength almost 58,000 infantry 6,000 cavalry 80 war elephants 34,000 Roman infantry 3,000 Roman cavalry 6,000 Numidian cavalry Casualties 20,000 killed 11,000 wounded 15,000 captured 1,500 killed 4,000 wounded... Saguntum, now Sagunt, (Castilian Sagunto) is an ancient city in the fertile district of Camp de Morvedre in the province of Valencia in eastern Spain. ...

The Battle of Zama itself is recounted elsewhere, but it is noteworthy to cite Scipio's contribution to its outcome. Hannibal had arranged his infantry in three phalangial lines designed to overlap the Roman lines. His strategy, so oft reliant upon subtle stratagems, was simple: a massive forward attack by the war elephants would create vulnerable gaps in the Roman lines, and these would be attacked from lines of infantry, and supported by cavalry.

Rather than arranging his forces in the traditional manipular lines, which put the velites, principes, and triarii in succeeding lines of 500 men groups, Scipio instead put the maniples in a chequer pattern, with his elite heavy infantry in diagonals. This was done to match the length of the Carthaginian line, but also as a strategem against the war elephants. When the Carthaginian elephants charged, they found well laid traps before the Roman position, and were greeted by Roman trumpeters which drove many back out of confusion and fear. Roman javelins were used to good effect, and the sharp traps caused further disorder among the elephant calvary. Many of the elephants were so distraught that they charged back into their own Carthaginian lines. The Roman infantry was greatly rattled by the elephants, but Massinissa's Numidian and Laelius' Roman cavalry began to charge the opposing cavalry off the field. Both calvary commanders pursued their routing Carthaginian counterparts, leaving the Carthaginian and Roman infantries to engage one another. The resulting infantry clash was fierce and bloody, with neither side achieving local superiority. The Roman infantry had driven off the two front lines of the Carthaginian army and in the respite took an opportunity to water. The Roman army was then drawn up in a long line a single soldier deep and then marched towards Hannibals veterans who had not yet taken part in the battle. The final struggle was bitter, and only won when the allied cavalry rallied and returned to the battle field. Charging the rear of Hannibal's army, they caused what many historians have called the "Roman Cannae." This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The plural of the Latin word princeps. ... The Triarii (Latin singular triarius) was the third standard line of infantry of the Roman Republics army. ...

Because of the exertions of Rome and her allies against Carthage many Roman aristocrats, especially Cato, expected Scipio to raze that city to the ground after his successful campaign. However, Scipio dictated extremely moderate terms in contrast to an immoderate Roman Senate. At Scipio's consent, Hannibal was allowed to become the civic leader of Carthage as a byproduct of Scipio's moderation, which the Cato family did not forget. Despite his moderation towards the Carthaginians, he was cruel towards the Roman and the Latin deserters: the Latins were beheaded and the Romans crucified.

Return to Rome

Scipio was welcomed back to Rome in triumph with the agnomen of Africanus. He refused the many further honours which the people would have thrust upon him such as Consul and Dictator for life. In the year 199 BC, Scipio was elected Censor and for some years afterwards he lived quietly and took no part in politics. ...

In 193 BC, Scipio was one of the commissioners sent to Africa to settle a dispute between Massinissa and the Carthaginians, which the commission did not achieve. This may have been because Hannibal, in the service of Antiochus III of Syria, might have come to Carthage to gather support for a new attack on Italy. In 190 BC, when the Romans declared war against Antiochus III, Publius offered to join his brother Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus if the Senate entrusted the chief command to him. The two brothers brought the war to a conclusion by a decisive victory at Magnesia in the same year. Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC - 190s BC - 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC Years: 198 BC 197 BC 196 BC 195 BC 194 BC - 193 BC - 192 BC 191 BC... Silver coin of Antiochus III. The reverse shows Apollo seated on an omphalos. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC - 190s BC - 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC Years: 195 BC 194 BC 193 BC 192 BC 191 BC - 190 BC - 189 BC 188 BC... Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus (2nd century BC) was a Roman general and statesman. ... Combatants Roman Republic Seleucid Empire Commanders Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus Scipio Africanus Eumenes II of Pergamum Antiochus III the Great Strength 50. ...

Retirement

Scipio's political enemies, led by Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder, had gained ground. When the Scipiones returned to Rome, two tribunes prosecuted (187 BC) Lucius on the grounds of misappropriation of money received from Antiochus. As Lucius was in the act of producing his account-books, his brother wrested them from his hands, tore them in pieces, and flung them on the floor of the Senate house. Publius then allegedly asked the courts why they were concerned about how 3,000 Talents had been spent and apparently unconcerned about how 15,000 Talents were entering the state coffers (the tribute that Antiochus was paying Rome after his defeat by Lucius). This high-handed act shamed the prosecution, and it appears that the case against Lucius was dismissed, though Lucius would again be prosecuted, and this time convicted, after the death of Publius. Marcus Porcius Cato (Latin: M·PORCIVS·M·F·CATO[1]) (234 BC, Tusculum–149 BC) was a Roman statesman, surnamed the Censor (Censorius), Sapiens, Priscus, or the Elder (Major), to distinguish him from Cato the Younger (his great-grandson). ... Scipio (plural, Scipiones) is a Roman cognomen used by a branch of the Cornelii family. ... Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Greek form tribounos) was a title shared by several elected magistracies and other governmental and/or (para)military offices of the Roman Republic and Empire. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC - 180s BC - 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC Years: 192 BC 191 BC 190 BC 189 BC 188 BC - 187 BC - 186 BC 185 BC...

Africanus himself was subsequently (185 BC) accused of having been bribed by Antiochus. By reminding the people that it was the anniversary of his victory at Zama, he caused an outburst of enthusiasm in his favor. The people crowded round him and followed him to the Capitol, where they offered thanks to the gods and begged them to give Rome more citizens like Africanus. Despite the popular support that Publius commanded, there were renewed attempts to bring Africanus to trial, but these appear to have been deflected by his son-in-law, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus ^[1]. Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC - 180s BC - 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC Years: 190 BC 189 BC 188 BC 187 BC 186 BC - 185 BC - 184 BC 183 BC...

Africanus retired to his country seat at Liternum on the coast of Campania. He lived there for the rest of his life, revealing his great magnanimity by attempting to prevent the ruin of the exiled Hannibal by Rome. He died at the age 53 in 183 BC, demanding that his body would be buried away from his ungrateful city. An ancient town of Campania, Italy, on the low sandy coast between Cumae and the mouth of the Volturnus. ... Campania is a region of Southern Italy, bordering on Lazio to the north-west, Molise to the north, Puglia to the north-east, Basilicata to the east, and the Tyrrhenian Sea to the west. ... Magnanimity is the generosity of the victor to the defeated. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC 190s BC - 180s BC - 150s BC 140s BC 130s BC 120s BC 110s BC Years: 188 BC 187 BC 186 BC 185 BC 184 BC - 183 BC - 182 BC 181 BC...

Marriage and issue

With his wife Aemilia Paulla (also called Aemilia Tertia), daughter of the consul Lucius Aemilius Paullus who fell at Cannae and sister of another consul Lucius Aemilius Paulus Macedonicus, he had a happy and fruitful marriage. Aemilia Paulla had unusual freedom and wealth for a patrician married woman, and she was an important role model for many younger Roman woman, just as her youngest daughter Cornelia, Mother of the Gracchi, would be an important role model for many Late Republican Roman noblewomen, including allegedly, the mother of Julius Caesar. Despite his marriage, Scipio allegedly had an eye for beautiful women, or so allege later historians. Lucius Aemilius Paullus (d. ... Lucius Aemilius Paulus Macedonicus (229 BC-160 BC) was a Roman general and politician. ...

At his death, Scipio Africanus had two sons and two daughters living. Both sons rose to become praetors in 174 BC, but took no further part in public life; both died unmarried, relatively young. The elder son and heir Publius however adopted his own first cousin—an Aemilius Paullus (b. 185 BC) as Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus (also known as Scipio Aemilianus Africanus). This adoption took place well before the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC. Nicholas Poussins painting of the Continence of Scipio, depicting his return of a captured young woman to her fiancé, having refused to accept her from his troops as a prize of war. ... Combatants Macedon Roman Republic Commanders Perseus of Macedon Lucius Aemilius Paulus Macedonicus Strength 44,000 38,000 Casualties 25,000 killed and wounded Less than a hundred dead, numerous wounded. ...

Scipio and Aemilia Paulla also had two daughters surviving. The elder Cornelia married her second cousin Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum (son of the consul of 191 BC who was himself son of Scipio's elder paternal uncle Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus). This Scipio Nasica rose to many of the dignities enjoyed by his late father-in-law, and was noted for his staunch (if ultimately futile) opposition to Cato the Censor over the fate of Carthage from about 157 to 149 BC. They had at least one surviving son (of whom more below). Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum (d. ... Marcus Porcius Cato (Latin: M·PORCIVS·M·F·CATO[1]) (234 BC, Tusculum–149 BC) was a Roman statesman, surnamed the Censor (Censorius), Sapiens, Priscus, or the Elder (Major), to distinguish him from Cato the Younger (his great-grandson). ...

The younger daughter was more famous in history; Cornelia Africana, young wife of the elderly Tiberius Gracchus Major or Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, tribune of the plebs, praetor, then consul 177 (then censor and consul again), became the mother of 12 children of whom the only surviving sons were the two famous Tiberius Gracchus and Gaius Gracchus. All three surviving children of this union were ill-fated; the brothers Gracchi died relatively young, murdered or forced to commit suicide by more conservative relatives. The eldest child and only surviving daughter, Sempronia, was married to her mother's first cousin (and her own cousin by adoption) Scipio Aemilianus Africanus. The couple had no children, and Sempronia grew to hate her husband after he condoned the murder of her brother Tiberius in 132 BC. Scipio's mysterious death in 129 BC, at the relatively young age of 56, was blamed by some on his wife. Cornelia Scipionis Africana (born circa 190 BC - died 100 BC) was the second daughter of Scipio Africanus Major, the hero of the Second Punic War, and Aemilia Paulla. ... Tiberius Gracchus Major ( Major, Latin for the elder, Latin: TI·SEMPRONIVS·P·F·TI·N·GRACCVS) (about 210 BC - about 150 BC) or Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus was a Roman politician of the 2nd century BC. Tiberius was of Plebs status and was a member of the well connected gens Sempronia... Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (Latin: TI·SEMPRONIVS·TI·F·P·N·GRACCVS) (163 BC-132 BC) was a Roman politician of the 2nd century BC. As a plebeian tribune, he caused political turmoil in the Republic by his attempts to legislate agrarian reforms. ... Gaius Gracchus (Latin: C·SEMPRONIVS·TI·F·P·N·GRACCVS) (154 BC-121 BC) was a Roman politician of the 2nd century BC. He was the younger brother of Tiberius Gracchus and, like him, pursued a popular political agenda that ultimately ended in his death. ... A woman an ancient Rome, vehemently criticized by Sallust for her openness of talent and intellect. ... Nicholas Poussins painting of the Continence of Scipio, depicting his return of a captured young woman to her fiancé, having refused to accept her from his troops as a prize of war. ...

Scipio's only descendants living through the Late Republican Period were his elder daughter Cornelia and her husband Scipio Nasica. Another descendant was the grandchild to Gaius Gracchus, who was Fulvia Flacca Bambula, who married Roman Triumvir Mark Antony. Gaius Gracchus (Latin: C·SEMPRONIVS·TI·F·P·N·GRACCVS) (154 BC-121 BC) was a Roman politician of the 2nd century BC. He was the younger brother of Tiberius Gracchus and, like him, pursued a popular political agenda that ultimately ended in his death. ... Fulvia (died 40 BC) was a Roman matron remembered by her ambition and political activity, in a time when women were expected to stay home and live with virtue and modesty, according to Roman morals. ... Look up Roman in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The term triumvirate (Latin for rule by three men) or troika in Russian, is commonly used to describe an alliance between three equally powerful political or military leaders. ... Bust of Mark Antony Marcus Antonius (Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N[1]) ( 83 BC–August 1, 30 BC), known in English as Mark Antony, was a Roman politician and general. ...

The son-in-law became consul (abdicating or resigning), then censor, then Princeps Senatus and died as Pontifex Maximus. The second Scipio Nasica's son and descendants all became increasingly conservative, in stark contrast to the father and the grandfathers.

Scipio Africanus's eldest grandson Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio became consul in 138, murdered his own cousin Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (163–132 BC) in 132. Scipio Nasica Serapio was sent to Asia Minor by the Senate to escape the wrath of the Gracchi supporters, and died mysteriously there. Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio was consul in 138 BC. He had a prominent part in the murder of Tiberius Gracchus; in order to save him from the vengeance of the populares, he was sent by the Senate on a pretended mission to Asia. ... Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (Latin: TI·SEMPRONIVS·TI·F·P·N·GRACCVS) (163 BC-132 BC) was a Roman politician of the 2nd century BC. In his short life he caused a political turmoil in the Republic, by his attempts, as plebeian tribune, to legislate agrarian reforms. ...

His son, the fourth Scipio Nasica, was even more conservative, and rose to be consul in 112 BC. This Scipio Nasica's sons became praetors only shortly before the Marsic or Social War (starting 91 BC). However, a grandson (adopted into the plebeian-noble Caecilii Metelli) became the Metellus Scipio who allied himself with Pompey the Great and Cato the Younger, and who went into opposition against Julius Caesar. Metellus Scipio was the last Scipio to distinguish himself militarily or politically. The Caecilii Metellii was one of the most important and wealthiest families in the Roman Republic. ... This article refers to the Roman General. ... Marcus Porcius Cato Uticensis (95 BC–46 BC), known as Cato the Younger to distinguish him from his great-grandfather Cato the Elder, was a politician and statesman in the late Roman Republic, and a follower of the Stoic philosophy. ...

None of Scipio's descendants, apart from Scipio Aemilianus—his wife's nephew who became his adoptive grandson—came close to matching his political career or his military successes.

It is not clear how the consul Publius Cornelius Scipio Salvito (a former husband of Scribonia, second wife of Octavian aka Augustus Caesar, and mother of his only legitimate child Julia the Elder) is related to Scipio Africanus. Publius Cornelius Scipio ‘Salvito’ (a family nickname for ’Greetings’). Scipio was a former consul who lived in the late Roman Republic. ... Scribonia (d. ... Augustus Caesar Caesar Augustus (Latin: IMP·CAESAR·DIVI·F·AVGVSTVS)¹ (23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), known earlier in his life as Gaius Octavius or Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus, was the first Roman Emperor and is traditionally considered the greatest. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards and to make a clear distinction between fact and fiction, this article may require cleanup. ...

Roman opinions

He was a man of great intellectual culture and could speak and read Greek, and wrote his own memoirs in Greek. He also enjoyed the reputation of being a graceful orator. Orator is a Latin word for speaker (from the Latin verb oro, meaning I speak or I pray). In ancient Rome, the art of speaking in public (Ars Oratoria) was a professional competence especially cultivated by politicians and lawyers. ...

His Greek interests however raised much opposition by the conservatives of Rome, led by Cato the Elder who felt that Greek influence was destroying old Roman culture and making the Roman men effeminate.

There was a belief that he was a special favourite of heaven and held actual communication with the gods. It is quite possible that he himself honestly shared this belief. However, the strength of this belief is evident, even a generation later when his adopted grandson, Publius Aemilianus Scipio was elected to the Consulship from the Office of Tribune. His rise was spectacular and letters survive from soldiers under his command in Spain that they believed that he possessed the same abilities as his grandfather. The elder Scipio was a spiritual man as well as a soldier and statesman, and was a priest of Mars. The ability which he is supposed to have been possessed of, is called by the old name, second-sight and he is supposed to have had prescient dreams in which he saw the future. Livy describes this belief as it was perceived then, without his opinion, however Polybius who was the friend of Publius Aemilianus Scipio, describes his doubts as to this belief instead saying there is no such thing. But in so doing, he felt it necessary to address this aspect of the popular Scipio legend as he perceived it. To his political opponents, he was often harsh and arrogant, but towards others singularly gracious and sympathetic. According to Gellmus, his life was written by Oppius and Hyginus, and also, it was said, by Plutarch. He often visited the temple of Jupiter and made offerings there. Hyginus can refer to: Gaius Julius Hyginus (c. ... Plutarch Mestrius Plutarchus (Greek: Πλούταρχος; 46- 127), better known in English as Plutarch, was an Hellenistic historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist. ...

He appears in Cicero's De Republica and De Amicitia, and in Silius Italicus's Punica De re publica is a work by Cicero, written in six books 54-51 BC, in the format of a Socratic dialogue, that is to say: Scipio Africanus Minor (who had died a few decades before Cicero was born) takes the role of wise old man, that is an obligatory... Silius Italicus, in full Titus Catius Silius Italicus (AD 25 or 26 - 101), was a Latin epic poet. ... Species L. Balf. ...

Legacy

Military

Scipio is considered by many to be one of Rome's greatest generals; he never lost a battle. Skillful alike in strategy and in tactics, he had also the faculty of inspiring his soldiers with confidence. According to the story, Hannibal, who regarded Alexander as the first and Pyrrhus as the second among military commanders, confessed that had he beaten Scipio he should have put himself before either of them—though this particular story was probably fabricated by Livy at a later date. Alexander the Great (Greek: ,[1] Megas Alexandros; July 356 BC–June 11, 323 BC), also known as Alexander III, king of Macedon (336–323 BC), was one of the most successful military commanders in history. ... Pyrrhus of Epirus Pyrrhus (318-272 BC) (Greek: Πύρρος), king of the Molossians (from ca. ... A portrait of Titus Livius made long after his death. ...

Music

The exploits of Scipio inspired George Frideric Handel to write the opera Scipio, the march from which remains the regimental slow march of the British Grenadier Guards. George Frideric Handel, 1733 George Frideric Handel (February 23, 1685 – April 14, 1759) was a German/British Baroque composer who was a leading composer of concerti grossi, operas and oratorios. ... Opera composed by Handel for the Royal Academy of Music in 1726. ... The Stars and Stripes Forever by John Philip Sousa is considered amongst the greatest marches ever written. ... The Grenadier Guards is the most senior regiment of the Guards Division of the British Army, and, as such, is the most senior regiment of infantry. ...

Renaissance literature and art

The Dream of Scipio, National Gallery.

'The Continence [i.e. moderation] of Scipio' was a stock motif in exemplary literature and art [1], as was the 'Dream of Scipio', portraying his allegorical choice between Virtue and Luxury [2]. The Continence of Scipio, depicting his clemency and sexual restraint after the fall of Carthago Nova, was an even more popular subject. Versions of the subject were painted by many artists from the Renaissance through to the 19th century, including Andrea Mantegna and Nicholas Poussin. Image File history File links Dream_of_Scipio,_National_Gallery. ... Image File history File links Dream_of_Scipio,_National_Gallery. ... National Gallery is a common name for a countrys major public art gallery. ... An Exemplum (latin for example, pl. ... An allegory (from Greek αλλος, allos, other, and αγορευειν, agoreuein, to speak in public) is a figurative representation conveying a meaning other than and in addition to the literal. ... The Agony in the Garden (1455) is the pinnacle of Mantegnas early style. ... Et in Arcadia ego by Nicolas Poussin. ...

Film

Shortly before Italy's invasion of Ethiopia, Benito Mussolini commissioned an epic film depicting the exploits of Scipio. Scipione l'africano, written by Carmine Gallone, won the Mussolini Cup for the greatest Italian film at the 1937 Venice Film Festival. Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (July 29, 1883 – April 28, 1945) was the prime minister and dictator of Italy from 1922 until 1943, when he was overthrown from power. ... 1937 (MCMXXXVII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar). ... The Venice Film Festival (it: Mostra Internazionale dArte Cinematografica) is the oldest Film Festival in the World (began in the 1932) and takes place every year in late August/early September on the Lido di Venezia in the historic Palazzo del Cinema on the Lungomare Marconi, in Venice, Italy. ...

Literature

• Ross Leckie, Carthage trilogy, source of the 2006 film (1996, Hannibal: A Novel, ISBN 0-89526-443-9 ; 1999, Scipio, a Novel, ISBN 0-349-11238-X ; Carthage, 2000, ISBN 0-86241-944-1)

Notes

P·CORNELIVS·P·F·L·N·SCIPIO·AFRICANVS in English is "Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus, son of Publius, grandson of Lucius"

1. ^ Livy, History of Rome, XXXVIII , 53

See also

• Scipio-Paullus-Gracchus family tree
• Akinde, Michael O., Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus. [3]
• Undefeated Military Commanders

The Scipio-Paullus-Gracchus family tree includes the Roman Scipio, Paullus and Gracchus families. ... The following is the list of known military commanders who did not lose any significant engagement against the enemy as the commander-in-chief of a significant portion of a countrys military forces. ...

References

• H. H. Scullard, Scipio Africanus: Soldier and Politician, Thames and Hudson, London, 1970. ISBN 0-500-40012-1

For the military achievements of Scipio see: Howard Hayes Scullard (1903-1983) was a British historian specializing in ancient history, notable for editing the Oxford Classical Dictionary and for his many books. ...

• B.H. Liddell Hart, A Greater Than Napoleon, Scipio Africanus, first published 1926, London
• Theodore Ayrault Dodge, Hannibal, Da Capo Press; Reissue edition, 2004. ISBN 0-306-81362-9

This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain. Basil Henry Liddell Hart (October 31, 1895 _ January 29, 1970) was a military historian and is considered among the great military strategists of the 20th century. ... Theodore Ayrault Dodge (28 May 1842–1909) was a Union officer in the American Civil War and a military historian of both that war and of the great generals of ancient and European history. ... The Caecilii Metellii was one of the most important and wealthiest families in the Roman Republic. ... This list of Republican Roman Consuls is based on the Varronian chronology, which intercalates four dictator years and has other peculiarities. ... This article is becoming very long. ... Centuries: 4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC Decades: 250s BC 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC - 200s BC - 190s BC 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC Years: 210 BC 209 BC 208 BC 207 BC 206 BC - 205 BC - 204 BC 203 BC... Marcus Cornelius Cethegus, pontifex maximus and curule aedile, 213 BC. In 211 BC, as praetor, he had charge of Apulia; later, he was sent to Sicily, where he proved a successful administrator. ... Marcus Porcius Cato (Latin: M·PORCIVS·M·F·CATO[1]) (234 BC, Tusculum–149 BC) was a Roman statesman, surnamed the Censor (Censorius), Sapiens, Priscus, or the Elder (Major), to distinguish him from Cato the Younger (his great-grandson). ... At least four notable Romans were named Lucius Valerius Flaccus. ... This list of Republican Roman Consuls is based on the Varronian chronology, which intercalates four dictator years and has other peculiarities. ... This article is becoming very long. ... Tiberius Sempronius Longus was a Roman consul in 194 BCE, and a contemporary of Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus. ... Centuries: 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC Decades: 240s BC 230s BC 220s BC 210s BC 200s BC - 190s BC - 180s BC 170s BC 160s BC 150s BC 140s BC Years: 199 BC 198 BC 197 BC 196 BC 195 BC - 194 BC - 193 BC 192 BC... Lucius Cornelius L. f. ... Encyclopædia Britannica, the 11th edition The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911) is perhaps the most famous edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. ... The public domain comprises the body of all creative works and other knowledge—writing, artwork, music, science, inventions, and others—in which no person or organization has any proprietary interest. ...