NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Skepticism

In ordinary usage, skepticism or scepticism (Greek: skeptomai, to look about, to consider; see also spelling differences) refers to A related article is titled uncertainty. ... Nihilism (from the Latin nihil, nothing) is a philosophical position which argues that the world, especially past and current human existence, is without objective meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, or essential value. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Probability is the chance that something is likely to happen or be the case. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with estimation. ... Look up belief in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... It has been suggested that Meta-epistemology be merged into this article or section. ... A related article is titled uncertainty. ... Determinism is the philosophical proposition that every event, including human cognition, decision and action, is causally determined by an unbroken chain of prior occurrences. ... Skepticism are a doom metal band from Finland. ... The Skeptics Society is a nonprofit organization devoted to promoting scientific skepticism and resisting the spread of pseudoscience, superstition, and irrational beliefs. ... The Skeptic is a United Kingdom magazine which aims to invalidate and discredit claims of the paranormal and pseudoscience. ... American and British English spelling differences are one aspect of American and British English differences. ...

In philosophy, skepticism refers more specifically to any one of several propositions. These include propositions about Doctrine, from Latin doctrina, (compare doctor), means a body of teachings or instructions, taught principles or positions, as the body of teachings in a branch of knowledge or belief system. ... Personification of knowledge (Greek Î•Ï€Î¹ÏƒÏ„Î·Î¼Î·, Episteme) in Celsus Library in Ephesos, Turkey. ... The philosopher Socrates about to take poison hemlock as ordered by the court. ...

In classical philosophy, skepticism refers to the teachings and the traits of the Skeptikoi, a school of philosophers of whom it was said that they "asserted nothing but only opined" (Liddell and Scott). In this sense, philosophical skepticism, or pyrrhonism, is the philosophical position that one should avoid the postulation of final truths. Turned on itself, skepticism would question that skepticism is a valid perspective at all. Cynicism (Greek ) was originally the philosophy of a group of ancient Greeks called the Cynics, founded by Antisthenes. ... Pessimists see the world as uninviting and cruel. ... This page lists some links to ancient philosophy, although for Western thinkers prior to Socrates, see Pre-Socratic philosophy. ... Philosophical skepticism (UK spelling, scepticism) is both a philosophical school of thought and a method that crosses disciplines and cultures. ... Pyrrho (c. ...

In religion, skepticism refers to "doubt concerning basic religious principles (as immortality, providence, and revelation)" (Merriam–Webster).

The word skepticism can characterize a position on a single claim, but in scholastic circles more frequently describes a lasting mindset and an approach to accepting or rejecting new information. Individuals who proclaim to have a skeptical outlook are frequently called skeptics, often without regard to whether it is philosophical skepticism or empirical skepticism that they profess.

Philosophical scepticism

In philosophical scepticism, pyrrhonism is a position that refrains from making truth claims. A philosophical skeptic does not claim that truth is impossible (which would be a truth claim). The label is commonly used to describe other philosophies which appear similar to philosophical scepticism, such as "academic" scepticism, an ancient variant of Platonism that claimed knowledge of truth was impossible. Empiricism is a closely related, but not identical, position to philosophical skepticism. Empiricists see empiricism as a pragmatic compromise between philosophical scepticism and nomothetic science; philosophical scepticism is in turn sometimes referred to as "radical empiricism." Philosophical skepticism (UK spelling, scepticism) is both a philosophical school of thought and a method that crosses disciplines and cultures. ... In philosophy generally, empiricism is a theory of knowledge emphasizing the role of experience in the formation of ideas, while discounting the notion of innate ideas. ... Nomothetic literally means proposition of the law (Greek derivation) and is used in both philosophy (see also Nomothetic and idiographic) and in psychology with differing meanings. ...

Philosophical scepticism originated in ancient Greek philosophy. One of its first proponents was Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360-275 B.C.), who traveled and studied as far as India, and propounded the adoption of 'practical' scepticism. Subsequently, in the 'New Academy' Arcesilaus (c. 315-241 B.C.) and Carneades (c. 213-129 B.C.) developed more theoretical perspectives, by which conceptions of absolute truth and falsity were refuted. Carneades criticized the views of the Dogmatists, especially supporters of Stoicism, asserting that absolute certainty of knowledge is impossible. Sextus Empiricus (c. A.D. 200), the main authority for Greek skepticism, developed the position further, incorporating aspects of empiricism into the basis for asserting knowledge. Greek philosophy focused on the role of reason and inquiry. ... Pyrrho (c. ... Elis, or Eleia (Greek, Modern: Î‰Î»Î¹Î´Î± Ilida, Ancient/Katharevousa: Î‰Î»Î¹Ï‚, also Ilis, Doric: Î†Î»Î¹Ï‚) is an ancient district within the modern prefecture of Ilia. ... Arcesilaus (á¼ˆÏÎºÎµÏƒÎ¯Î»Î±Î¿Ï‚) (c. ... Carneades (c. ... A restored Stoa in Athens. ... Sextus Empiricus (fl. ... In philosophy generally, empiricism is a theory of knowledge emphasizing the role of experience in the formation of ideas, while discounting the notion of innate ideas. ...

Greek skeptics criticized the Stoics, accusing them of dogmatism. For the sceptics, the logical mode of argument was untenable, as it relied on propositions which could not be said to be either true or false without relying on further propositions. This was the regress argument, whereby every proposition must rely on other propositions in order to maintain its validity. In addition, the sceptics argued that two propositions could not rely on each other, as this would create a circular argument (as p implies q and q implies p). For the skeptics such logic was thus an inadequate measure of truth which could create as many problems as it claimed to have solved. Truth was not, however, necessarily unobtainable, but rather an idea which did not yet exist in a pure form. Although skepticism was accused of denying the possibility of truth, in actual fact it appears to have mainly been a critical school which merely claimed that logicians had not discovered truth. Stoicism is a school of philosophy commonly associated with such Greek philosophers as Zeno of Citium, Cleanthes, or Chrysippus and with such later Romans as Cicero, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius, and Epictetus. ... This article is on dogma in religion. ... Logic, from Classical Greek Î»ÏŒÎ³Î¿Ï‚ logos (meaning word, account, reason or principle), is the study of the principles and criteria of valid inference and demonstration. ... The Regress Argument (also known as The Problem of Criterion and the diallelus) is a problem in epistemology and, in general, a problem in any situation where a statement has to be justified. ... Begging the question, in modern popular usage, is often used synonymously for raising the question. However the original meaning is quite different: it described a type of logical fallacy (also called petitio principii) in which the evidence given for a proposition as much needs to be proved as the proposition...

Rene Descartes is credited for developing a global skepticism, as a thought experiment in his attempt to find absolute certainty on which to base as the foundation of his philosophy. David Hume has also been described as a global skeptic. René Descartes René Descartes (IPA: , March 31, 1596 – February 11, 1650), also known as Cartesius, worked as a philosopher and mathematician. ... In philosophy, physics, and other fields, a thought experiment (from the German Gedankenexperiment) is an attempt to solve a problem using the power of human imagination. ... see also: David Hume of Godscroft David Hume (April 26, 1711 â€“ August 25, 1776)[1] was a Scottish philosopher, economist, and historian. ...

Scientific scepticism

A scientific (or empirical) sceptic is one who questions the reliability of certain kinds of claims by subjecting them to a systematic investigation. The scientific method details the specific process by which this investigation of reality is conducted. Considering the rigor of the scientific method, science itself may simply be thought of as an organized form of scepticism. This does not mean that the scientific sceptic is necessarily a scientist who conducts live experiments (though this may be the case), but that the sceptic generally accepts claims that are in his/her view likely to be true based on testable hypotheses and critical thinking. Scientific skepticism or rational skepticism (non-US spelling, scepticism) sometimes referred to as skeptical inquiry, is a scientific, or practical, epistemological position in which one questions the veracity of claims lacking empirical evidence. ... A central concept in science and the scientific method is that all evidence must be empirical, or empirically based, that is, dependent on evidence or consequences that are observable by the senses. ... Scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena and acquiring new knowledge, as well as for correcting and integrating previous knowledge. ... Reality in everyday usage means the state of things as they actually exist. ... A hypothesis (= assumption in ancient Greek) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. ... are you kiddin ? i was lookin for it for hours ...

Common topics that scientifically-skeptical literature questions include health claims surrounding certain foods, procedures, and medicines, such as homeopathy, Reiki, Thought Field Therapy (TFT), vertebral subluxations; the plausibility of supernatural entities (such as ghosts, poltergeists, angels, and gods); as well as the existence of ESP/telekinesis, psychic powers, and telepathy (and thus the credibility of parapsychology); topics in cryptozoology, Bigfoot, the Loch Ness monster, UFOs, crop circles, astrology, repressed memories, creationism, dowsing, conspiracy theories, and other claims the sceptic sees as unlikely to be true on scientific grounds. Samuel Hahnemann, the father of homeopathy Homeopathy (also spelled homÅ“opathy or homoeopathy), from the Greek words ÏŒÎ¼Î¿Î¹Î¿Ï‚, hÃ³moios (similar) and Ï€Î¬Î¸Î¿Ï‚, pÃ¡thos (suffering)[1], is a controversial subset of alternative medicine practices, that aims to treat like with like. ... Reiki is performed through a technique similar to the laying on of hands. ... Thought Field Therapy, or TFT, is a fringe psychological treatment, developed by Dr. Roger Callahan. ... The vertebral column seen from the side Vertebral subluxation is a chiropractic term that is used by some chiropractors to describe a myriad of signs and symptoms thought to occur as a result of a misaligned or dysfunctional spinal segment. ... Look up Supernatural in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article is about the paranormal. ... A poltergeist (German for rumbling ghost) is widely believed to be an invisible ghost that interacts with others by moving and influencing inanimate objects. ... The Annunciation - the Angel Gabriel announces to Mary that she will bear Jesus (El Greco, 1575) An angel is an ethereal being found in many religions, whose duties are to assist and serve God. ... Look up deity in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Extra-sensory perception (ESP) is defined in parapsychology as the ability to aquire information by paranormal means. ... Psychokinesis (literally mind-movement) or PK is the more commonly used term today for what in the past was known as telekinesis (literally distant-movement). It refers to the psi ability to influence the behavior of matter by mental intention (or possibly some other aspect of mental activity) alone. ... Psychic, from the Greek psychikos meaning mental, of the soul (in turn derived from psyche meaning soul, mind), is a term used to describe phenomena or abilities that are said to originate from the brain but which transcend its confines. ... Telepathy, from the Greek Ï„á¿†Î»Îµ, tele, remote; and Ï€Î¬Î¸ÎµÎ¹Î±, patheia, to be effected by, describes the hypothetical transfer of information on thoughts or feelings between individuals by means other than the five classical senses. ... Parapsychology is the study of evidence for paranormal psychological phenomena such as telepathy, clairvoyance, and psychokinesis (Parapsychology, n. ... Cryptozoology is the search for animals that are rumored to exist, but for which conclusive proof is missing. ... â€œSasquatchâ€ redirects here. ... For other uses, see Loch Ness Monster (disambiguation). ... UFO can mean: Unidentified flying object United Future Organization, a Japanese-Brazilian electronic jazz band UFO, the rock band that previously featured Michael Schenker UFO, the Gerry Anderson TV series United Farmers of Ontario, a political party that formed the government in Ontario from 1919 to 1923 U.F.O... This article is about the band, Crop Circles, for information about the controversial phenomenon, see crop circle. ... Hand-coloured version of the anonymous Flammarion woodcut. ... A repressed memory, according to some theories of psychology, is a memory (often traumatic) of an event or environment which is stored by the unconscious mind but outside the awareness of the conscious mind. ... Creationism is the belief that humanity, life, the Earth, and the universe were created in their entirety by a supernatural deity or deities (typically God), whose existence is presupposed. ... A dowser, from an 18th century French book about superstitions. ... A conspiracy theory attempts to attribute the ultimate cause of an event or chain of events (usually political, social, or historical events), or the concealment of such causes from public knowledge, to a secret, and often deceptive plot by a covert alliance of powerful or influential people or organizations. ...

Most empirical or scientific skeptics do not profess philosophical scepticism. Whereas a philosophical skeptic may deny the very existence of knowledge, an empirical sceptic merely seeks likely proof before accepting that knowledge.

Activist scepticism

Activist skeptics, self-described "debunkers" are a subset of scientific skeptics who aim to expose in public what they see as the truth behind specific extraordinary claims. Debunkers may publish books, air TV programs, create websites, or use other means to advocate their message. In some cases they may challenge claimants outright or even stage elaborate hoaxes to prove their point, such as Project Alpha. Debunkers are scientific skeptics who attempt to disprove and pursue what they consider to be false, unscientific, bizarre or abnormal claims. ... Debunkers are scientific skeptics who attempt to disprove and pursue what they consider to be false, unscientific, bizarre or abnormal claims. ... A hoax is an attempt to trick an audience into believing that something false is real. ... Project Alpha was a hoax orchestrated by the magician, and skeptic of the paranormal, James Randi. ...

Because debunkers often challenge popular ideas, many are not strangers to controversy. Critics of debunkers sometimes accuse them of robbing others of hope. Debunkers frequently reply that it is the claimant, whom they many times accuse of exploiting public gullibility, who is guilty of abuse.

Habitual debunkers are sometimes called pseudoskeptics or pathological skeptics and accused of intentionally relying on pseudoscience masquerading as empirical skepticism. Pathological Skepticism is closedmindedness with deception: it is an irrational prejudice against new ideas which masquerades as proper Skepticism. ...

Religious skepticism

Religious skepticism is skepticism regarding faith-based claims. Religious skeptics may focus on the core tenets of religions, such as the existence of divine beings, or reports of earthly miracles. A religious skeptic is not necessarily an atheist or agnostic. Religious skepticism is a type of skepticism relating to religion, but should not be confused with atheism. ... For the U.S. hockey teams victory in the 1980 Winter Olympics, see Miracle on Ice, or Miracle (movie) According to many religions, a miracle is an intervention by God in the universe. ... For information about the band, see Atheist (band). ... The term agnosticism and the related agnostic were coined by Thomas Henry Huxley in 1869. ...

References

A Greek-English Lexicon is the standard lexicographical work of the ancient Greek language, begun in the nineteenth century and now in its ninth (revised) edition. ... Henry George Liddell (1811‑1898)was a British historian and academic, editor at Charterhouse and Christ Church, Oxford, of which in 1855 he became Dean. ... Robert Scott (January 26, 1811 - December 2, 1877) was a 19th-century British academic philologist and a Fellow (later Master) of Balliol College, Oxford University. ... Sir Henry Stuart Jones (May 15, 1867 - June 29, 1939) was a British academic and Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford University, where he held an appointment from 1920 to 1927 as Camden Professor of Ancient History. ...

Notes

Contents

Philosophical scepticism

Scientific scepticism

Activist scepticism

Religious skepticism

References

Notes

Further reading

See also

Literary sceptics

Organizations

Media

External links