A timeline of significant events in biology and organic chemistry For other uses, see Timeline (disambiguation). ... For the song by Girls Aloud see Biology (song) Biology studies the variety of life (clockwise from top-left) E. coli, tree fern, gazelle, Goliath beetle Biology (from Greek: Βιολογία - βίος, bio, life; and λόγος, logos, speech lit. ... Organic chemistry is a specific discipline within chemistry which involves the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation (by synthesis or by other means) of chemical compounds consisting primarily of carbon and hydrogen, which may contain any number of other elements, including nitrogen, oxygen, the halogens as...

Before 1600

• c. 450 B.C. - Sushruta writes the Sushruta Samhita, describing over 120 surgical instruments and 300 surgical procedures, classifies human surgery in 8 categories, and introduces cosmetic and plastic surgery.^[1]
• c. 450 B.C. - Xenophanes examined fossils and speculated on the evolution of life.
• c. 350 B.C. - Aristotle attempted a comprehensive classification of animals. His written works include Historion Animalium, a general biology of animals, De Partibus Animalium, a comparative anatomy and physiology of animals, and De Generatione Animalium, on developmental biology.
• c. 300 B.C. - Theophrastos (or Theophrastus) begins the systematic study of botany.
• c. 300 B.C. - Herophilos dissects the human body.
• c. 300 B.C. - Alcmaeon of Croton distinguished veins from arteries and discovered the optic nerve.
• c. 100 B.C. - Diocles wrote the oldest known anatomy book and was the first to use the term anatomy.
• c. 50-70 A.D. - Historia Naturalis by Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plinius Secundus) was published in 37 volumes.
• 130-200 - Claudius Galen wrote numerous treatises on human anatomy.
• c. 800 - Al-Jahiz describes the struggle for existence,^[2][3] introduces the idea of a food chain,^[4] and adheres to environmental determinism.^[5]
• c. 850 - Al-Dinawari is considered the founder of Arabic botany for his Book of Plants, in which he describes at least 637 plants and discussed plant evolution from its birth to its death, describing the phases of plant growth and the production of flowers and fruit.^[6]
• c. 900 - Rhazes (865-925) discredits the Galenic theory of humorism using an experiment.^[7]
• c. 1010 - Avicenna (Abu Ali al Hussein ibn Abdallah ibn Sina) published The Canon of Medicine (Kitab al-Qanun fi al-tibb), in which he introduces clinical trials and clinical pharmacology,^[8] and which remains an authoritative text in European medical education up until the 17th century.^[9][10]
• c. 1150 - Avenzoar adheres to experimental dissection and autopsy, which he carries out to prove that the skin disease scabies is caused by a parasite, a discovery which upsets the theory of humorism;^[11] and he also introduces experimental surgery,^[12] where animal testing is used to experiment with surgical techniques prior to using them on humans.^[13]
• 1200 - Abd-el-latif observes and examines a large number of skeletons during a famine in Egypt and he discovers that Galen was incorrect regarding the formation of the bones of the lower jaw and sacrum.^[14]
• c. 1200 - The Andalusian-Arabian biologist Abu al-Abbas al-Nabati develops an early scientific method for botany, introducing empirical and experimental techniques in the testing, description and identification of numerous materia medica, and separating unverified reports from those supported by actual tests and observations.^[15]
• c. 1225 - Ibn al-Baitar, al-Nabati's student, writes his Kitab al-Jami fi al-Adwiya al-Mufrada, a botanical and pharmaceutical encyclopedia describing 1,400 plants, foods, and drugs, 300 of which are his own original discoveries; a later Latin translation of his work is useful to European biologists and pharmacists in the 18th and 19th centuries.^[16]
• 1242 - Ibn al-Nafis publishes his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon, in which he discovers the pulmonary circulation^[17] and coronary circulation,^[18][19] which form the basis of the circulatory system.^[20]
• 1543 - Andreas Vesalius publishes the anatomy treatise De humani corporis fabrica.

It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Sushruta Samhita. ... The Sushruta Samhita is a Sanskrit text on surgery, attributed to Sushruta (lived in ca. ... For the album by The Huntingtons, see Plastic Surgery (album). ... Xenophanes of Colophon (Greek: Ξενοφάνης, 570 BC-480 BC) was a Greek philosopher, poet, and social and religious critic. ... For other uses, see Fossil (disambiguation). ... This article is about evolution in biology. ... This article is about life in general. ... For other uses, see Aristotle (disambiguation). ... For Wikipedias categorization projects, see Wikipedia:Categorization. ... Human heart and lungs, from an older edition of Grays Anatomy. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Theophrastus (Greek Θεόφραστος, 370 — about 285 BC), a native of Eressos in Lesbos, was the successor of Aristotle in the Peripatetic school. ... Pinguicula grandiflora commonly known as a Butterwort Example of a cross section of a stem [1] Botany is the scientific study of plant life. ... Herophilos, sometimes Latinized Herophilus (335-280 BC), was a Greek physician. ... Alcmaeon of Croton (mid-fifth century B.C.) was an Ancient Greek philosopher and medical theorist. ... In the circulatory system, a vein is a blood vessel that carries blood toward the heart. ... For other uses, see Artery (disambiguation). ... This article is about the anatomical structure. ... In Greek mythology, Diocles, or Díoklês, was one of the first priests of Demeter and one of the first to learn the secrets of the Eleusinian Mysteries. ... Pliny the Elder: an imaginative 19th Century portrait. ... For other uses, see Galen (disambiguation). ... Al-Jahiz (in Arabic الجاحظ) (real name Abu Uthman Amr Ibn Bahr al-Kinani al-Fuqaimi al-Basri) (born in Basra, 776 - 869) was a famous Arab scholar probably of Abyssinian descent. ... Charles Darwins Origin of Species (publ. ... Food chains, food webs and/or food networks describe the feeding relationships between species to another within an ecosystem. ... Environmental determinism, also known as climatic determinism, is the view that the physical environment, rather than social conditions, determines culture. ... Ä€bu ḤanÄ«fah Āḥmad ibn DawÅ«d DÄ«nawārÄ« (828 - 896) was an Kurdish botanist, historian, geographer, astronomer and mathematician [1]. He was born in Dinawar, (north-east of Kermanshah in present-day western Iran). ... Pinguicula grandiflora commonly known as a Butterwort Example of a cross section of a stem [1] Botany is the scientific study of plant life. ... Plant evolution is an aspect of the study of biological evolution, involving predominantly the evolution of plants suited to live on land, the greening of the various land masses by the filling of their niches with land plants, and the diversification of the groups of land plants. ... For other uses, see Razi. ... This article is about humors in Greco-Roman medicine. ... In the scientific method, an experiment (Latin: ex- periri, of (or from) trying) is a set of observations performed in the context of solving a particular problem or question, to retain or falsify a hypothesis or research concerning phenomena. ... For the lunar crater, see Avicenna (crater). ... A Latin copy of the Canon of Medicine, dated 1484, located at the P.I. Nixon Medical Historical Library of The University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio. ... This box:      In health care, a clinical trial is a comparison test of a medication or other medical treatment (such as a medical device), versus a placebo (inactive look-a-like), other medications or devices, or the standard medical treatment for a patients condition. ... Clinical pharmacology is studying pharmacology in relation to clinical science. ... Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar, Abumeron, ibn-Zohr) (1090? - 1162) was an Arab (Spanish-born) physician. ... Dissected rat showing major organs. ... This article is about the medical procedure. ... A parasite is an organism that spends a significant portion of its life in or on the living tissue of a host organism and which causes harm to the host without immediately killing it. ... “Surgeon” redirects here. ... Enos the space chimp before insertion into the Mercury-Atlas 5 capsule in 1961. ... Abdallatif, Abd-el-latif or Abd-Ul-Latif (1162-1231), a celebrated physician and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers of the East, was born at Baghdad. ... For other uses, see Skeleton (disambiguation). ... <nowiki>Insert non-formatted text hereBold text</nowiki>A famine is a social and economic crisis that is commonly accompanied by widespread malnutrition, starvation, epidemic and increased mortality. ... This article is about the skeletal organs. ... Human jaw front view Human jaw left view Human jaw top view The jaw is either of the two opposable structures forming, or near the entrance to, the mouth. ... For the record label, see Sacrum Torch. ... Al-Andalus is the Arabic name given the Iberian Peninsula by its Muslim conquerors; it refers to both the Caliphate proper and the general period of Muslim rule (711–1492). ... For other uses, see Arab (disambiguation). ... -1... A central concept in science and the scientific method is that all evidence must be empirical, or empirically based, that is, dependent on evidence or consequences that are observable by the senses. ... In the scientific method, an experiment (Latin: ex- periri, of (or from) trying) is a set of observations performed in the context of solving a particular problem or question, to retain or falsify a hypothesis or research concerning phenomena. ... Materia medica is a Latin term for any material or substance used in the composition of curative agents in medicine. ... For other uses, see Observation (disambiguation). ... Pinguicula grandiflora commonly known as a Butterwort Example of a cross section of a stem [1] Botany is the scientific study of plant life. ... For other uses, see Pharmacy (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Plant (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Drug (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... Ala-al-din abu Al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi (Arabic: علاء الدين أبو الحسن عليّ بن أبي حزم القرشي الدمشقي ) known as ibn Al-Nafis (Arabic: ابن النفيس ), was an Arab physician who is mostly famous for being the first to describe the pulmonary circulation of the blood. ... Pulmonary circulation is the portion of the cardiovascular system which carries oxygen-depleted blood away from the heart, to the lungs, and returns oxygenated blood back to the heart. ... The coronary circulation consists of the blood vessels that supply blood to and from the heart muscle itself. ... For transport in plants, see Vascular tissue. ... Andreas Vesalius or Andreas Vesal (1514 - Belgian anatomist and the author of the first complete textbook on human anatomy: De Humanis Corporis Fabrica (On the workings of the Human Body) (Basel, 1543). ... The title page of the Fabrica. ...

1600-1699

• ?? - Jan Baptist van Helmont performs his famous tree plant experiment in which he shows that the substance of a plant derives from water and air, the first description of photosynthesis.
• 1628 - William Harvey publishes An Anatomical Exercise on the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals
• 1651 - William Harvey concludes that all animals, including mammals, develop from eggs, and spontaneous generation of any animal from mud or excrement was an impossibility.
• 1658 - Jan Swammerdam observes red blood cells under a microscope.
• 1663 - Robert Hooke sees cells in cork using a microscope.
• 1668 - Francesco Redi disproves spontaneous generation by showing that fly maggots only appear on pieces of meat in jars if the jars are open to the air. Jars covered with cheesecloth contained no flies.
• 1672 - Marcello Malpighi publishes the first description of chick development, including the formation of muscle somites, circulation, and nervous system.
• 1676 - Anton van Leeuwenhoek observes protozoa and calls them animalcules.
• 1677 - Anton van Leeuwenhoek observes spermatozoa.
• 1683 - Anton van Leeuwenhoek observes bacteria. Leeuwenhoek's discoveries renew the question of spontaneous generation in microorganisms.

This page has been deleted, and should not be re-created without a good reason. ... PAKIS RULE Jan Baptist van Helmont. ... 1628 was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Tuesday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ... This article is about William Harvey, the English doctor. ... // Events January 1 - Charles II crowned King of Scotland in Scone. ... Events January 13 - Edward Sexby, who had plotted against Oliver Cromwell, dies in Tower of London February 6 - Swedish troops of Charles X Gustav of Sweden cross The Great Belt (Storebælt) in Denmark over frozen sea May 1 - Publication of Hydriotaphia, Urn Burial and The Garden of Cyrus by... Jan Swammerdam (February 12, 1637 - February 17, 1680) was a Dutch biologist and microscopist. ... For other uses, see Blood (disambiguation). ... Drawing of the structure of cork as it appeared under the microscope to Robert Hooke from Micrographia which is the origin of the word cell being used to describe the smallest unit of a living organism Cells in culture, stained for keratin (red) and DNA (green) The cell is the... A microscope (Greek: (micron) = small + (skopein) = to look at) is an instrument for viewing objects that are too small to be seen by the naked or unaided eye. ... Year 1663 (MDCLXIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ... Robert Hooke, FRS (July 18, 1635 – March 3, 1703) was an English polymath who played an important role in the scientific revolution, through both experimental and theoretical work. ... For other uses, see Cork. ... 1668 (MDCLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Wednesday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ... Redi is featured in many modern-day science textbooks due to his experiment. ... Events England, France, Munster and Cologne invade the United Provinces, therefore this name is know as ´het rampjaar´ (the disaster year) in the Netherlands. ... Marcello Malpighi (March 10, 1628 - September 30, 1694) was an Italian doctor, who gave his name to several physiological features. ... Events January 29 - Feodor III becomes Tsar of Russia First measurement of the speed of light, by Ole Rømer Bacons Rebellion Russo-Turkish Wars commence. ... Anton van Leeuwenhoek Anton van Leeuwenhoek (October 24, 1632 - August 30, 1723, full name Thonius Philips van Leeuwenhoek (pronounced Layewenhook) was a Dutch tradesman and scientist from Delft, Netherlands. ... Leishmania donovani, (a species of protozoan) in a bone marrow cell Protozoa (in Greek proton = first and zoa = animals) are unicellular eukaryotes, (singular protozoan). ... Animalcule is an older term for a microscopic animal or protozoan. ... 1677 (MDCLXXVII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ... Schematic diagram of a sperm cell, showing the (1) acrosome, (2) cell membrane, (3) nucleus, (4) mitochondria, and (5) flagellum (tail) A sperm cell, or spermatozoon ( spermatozoa) (in Greek: sperm = semen and zoon = alive), is the haploid cell that is the male gamete. ... Events June 6 - The Ashmolean Museum opens as the worlds first university museum. ... Phyla/Divisions Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Omnibacteria Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria (singular, bacterium) are a major group of living organisms. ...

1700-1799

• 1767 - Kaspar Friedrich Wolff argues that the tissues of a developing chick form from nothing and are not simply elaborations of already-present structures in the egg.
• 1768 - Lazzaro Spallanzani again disproves spontaneous generation by showing that no organisms grow in a rich broth if it is first heated (to kill any organisms) and allowed to cool in a stoppered flask. He also shows that fertilization in mammals requires an egg and semen.
• 1771 - Joseph Priestley demonstrates that plants produce a gas that animals and flames consume. Those two gases are carbon dioxide and oxygen.
• 1798 - Thomas Malthus discusses human population growth and food production in An Essay on the Principle of Population.

Year 1767 (MDCCLXVII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 11-day slower Julian calendar). ... Caspar Friedrich Wolff (January 18, 1734 in Berlin, Germany - February 22, 1794 in St. ... 1768 was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... Lazzaro Spallanzani. ... 1771 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Priestley by Ellen Sharples (1794)[1] Joseph Priestley (March 13, 1733 (old style) – February 8, 1804) was an eighteenth-century British natural philosopher, Dissenting clergyman, political theorist, theologian, and educator. ... Carbon dioxide (chemical formula: ) is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. ... This article is about the chemical element and its most stable form, or dioxygen. ... Year 1798 (MDCCXCVIII) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Friday of the 11-day slower Julian calendar). ... Thomas Robert Malthus FRS (13 February 1766 – 23 December 1834),[1] was a political economist and British demographer. ...

1800-1899

• 1801 - Jean-Baptiste Lamarck begins the detailed study of invertebrate taxonomy.
• 1802 - The term biology in its modern sense is propounded independently by Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus (Biologie oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur) and Lamarck (Hydrogéologie). The word had been coined in 1800 by Karl Friedrich Burdach.
• 1809 - Lamarck proposes a modern theory of evolution based on the inheritance of acquired characteristics.
• 1817 - Pierre-Joseph Pelletier and Joseph-Bienaime Caventou isolate chlorophyll.
• 1820 - Christian Friedrich Nasse formulates Nasse's law: hemophilia occurs only in males and is passed on by unaffected females.
• 1824 - J. L Prevost and J. B. Dumas showed that the sperm in semen were not parasites, as previously thought, but, instead, the agents of fertilization.
• 1826 - Karl von Baer shows that the eggs of mammals are in the ovaries, ending a 200-year search for the mammalian egg.
• 1828 - Friedrich Woehler synthesizes urea; first synthesis of an organic compound from inorganic starting materials.
• 1836 - Theodor Schwann discovers pepsin in extracts from the stomach lining; first isolation of an animal enzyme.
• 1837 - Theodor Schwann shows that heating air will prevent it from causing putrefaction.
• 1838 - Matthias Schleiden proposes that all plants are composed of cells.
• 1839 - Theodor Schwann proposes that all animal tissues are composed of cells. Schwann and Schleinden argued that cells are the elementary particles of life.
• 1843 - Martin Barry reported the fusion of a sperm and an egg for rabbits in a 1-page paper in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London.
• 1856 - Louis Pasteur states that microorganisms produce fermentation.
• 1858 - Charles R. Darwin and Alfred Wallace independently propose a theory of biological evolution ("descent through modification") by means of natural selection. Only in later editions of his works did Darwin used the term "evolution."
• 1858 - Rudolf Virchow proposes that cells can only arise from pre-existing cells; "Omnis cellula e celulla," all cell from cells. The Cell Theory states that all organisms are composed of cells (Schleiden and Schwann), and cells can only come from other cells (Virchow).
• 1864 - Louis Pasteur disproves the spontaneous generation of cellular life.
• 1865 - Gregor Mendel demonstrates in pea plants that inheritance follows definite rules. The Principle of Segregation states that each organism has two genes per trait, which segregate when the organism makes eggs or sperm. The Principle of Independent Assortment states that each gene in a pair is distributed independently during the formation of eggs or sperm. Mendel's trailblazing foundation for the science of genetics went unnoticed, to his lasting disappointment.
• 1865 - Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz realizes that benzene is composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms in a hexagonal ring.
• 1869 - Friedrich Miescher discovers nucleic acids in the nuclei of cells.
• 1874 - Jacobus van 't Hoff and Joseph-Achille Le Bel advance a three-dimensional stereochemical representation of organic molecules and propose a tetrahedral carbon atom.
• 1876 - Oskar Hertwig and Hermann Fol independently describe (in sea urchin eggs) the entry of sperm into the egg and the subsequent fusion of the egg and sperm nuclei to form a single new nucleus.
• 1884 - Emil Fischer begins his detailed analysis of the compositions and structures of sugars.
• 1892 - Hans Driesch separates the individual cells of a 2-cell sea urchin embryo and shows that each cell develops into a complete individual, thus disproving the theory of preformation and showing that each cell is "totipotent," containing all the hereditary information necessary to form an individual.
• 1898 - Martinus Beijerinck used filtering experiments to show that tobacco mosaic disease is caused by something smaller than a bacterium, which he names a virus.

The Union Jack, flag of the newly formed United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. ... Portrait of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck (August 1, 1744 – December 18, 1829) was a French soldier, naturalist, academic and an early proponent of the idea that evolution occurred and proceeded in accordance with natural laws. ... Invertebrate is an English word that describes any animal without a spinal column. ... For the science of classifying living things, see alpha taxonomy. ... Year 1802 (MDCCCII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. ... Year 1809 (MDCCCIX) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar). ... This article is about biological evolution. ... 1817 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Pierre Joseph Pelletier (1788 – 1842) was a French chemist who did notable research work on vegetable alkaloids, and was the co-discoverer of quinine and strychnine. ... Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. ... 1820 was a leap year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Haemophilia or hemophilia is the name of any of several hereditary genetic illnesses that impair the bodys ability to control bleeding. ... 1824 was a leap year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... The oldest surviving photograph, Nicéphore Niépce, circa 1826 1826 (MDCCCXXVI) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Karl Ernst von Baer (February 17, 1792 - November 26, 1876) was a German-Estonian biologist and the founding father of embryology. ... In most birds and reptiles, an egg (Latin ovum) is the zygote, resulting from fertilization of the ovum. ... Subclasses & Infraclasses Subclass †Allotheria* Subclass Prototheria Subclass Theria Infraclass †Trituberculata Infraclass Metatheria Infraclass Eutheria For the folk-rock band see The Mammals. ... Year 1828 (MDCCCXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Thursday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Friedrich Wöhler Friedrich Wöhler (July 31, 1800 - September 23, 1882) was a German chemist, best-known for his synthesis of urea, but also the first to isolate several of the elements. ... Urea is an organic compound with the chemical formula (NH2)2CO. Urea is also known by the International Nonproprietary Name (rINN) carbamide, as established by the World Health Organization. ... Benzene is the simplest of the arenes, a family of organic compounds An organic compound is any member of a large class of chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon. ... Year 1836 (MDCCCXXXVI) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Theodore Schwann Theodor Schwann (December 7, 1810 in Neuss, Prussia - January 11, 1882, in Cologne) was a German physiologist, histologist and cytologist. ... Pepsin is a digestive protease (EC 3. ... In anatomy, the stomach is a bean-shaped hollow muscular organ of the gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication. ... Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ... Queen Victoria, Queen of the United Kingdom (1837 - 1901) 1837 (MDCCCXXXVII) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... | Jöns Jakob Berzelius, discoverer of protein 1838 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Matthias Jakob Schleiden (April 5, 1804 - June 23, 1881) was a German botanist and co-founder of the cell theory. ... 1839 (MDCCCXXXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Theodore Schwann Theodor Schwann (December 7, 1810 in Neuss, Prussia - January 11, 1882, in Cologne) was a German physiologist, histologist and cytologist. ... Year 1843 (MDCCCXLIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a common year starting on Friday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... 1856 was a leap year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... Louis Pasteur (December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French chemist and microbiologist best known for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and prevention of disease. ... For other uses, see Fermentation. ... Year 1858 (MDCCCLVIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... For other people of the same surname, and places and things named after Charles Darwin, see Darwin. ... For the Cornish painter, see Alfred Wallis. ... For other uses, see Natural selection (disambiguation). ... Year 1858 (MDCCCLVIII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Dr. R.L.K. Virchow Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow (October 13, 1821, Schivelbein (Pomerania) - September 5, 1902, Berlin) was a German doctor, anthropologist, public health activist, pathologist, prehistorian, biologist and politician. ... A prokaryote Cell theory refers to the idea that cells are the basic unit of structure in all living things. ... 1864 (MDCCCLXIV) was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a leap year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ... Louis Pasteur (December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French chemist and microbiologist best known for his remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and prevention of disease. ... Year 1865 (MDCCLXV) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Friday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... “Mendel” redirects here. ... Mendelian inheritance (or Mendelian genetics or Mendelism) is a set of primary tenets relating to the transmission of hereditary characteristics from parent organisms to their children; it underlies much of genetics. ... Year 1865 (MDCCLXV) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Friday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz (September 7, 1829 – July 13, 1896) was a German organic chemist. ... Benzene, or Benzol (see also Benzine), is an organic chemical compound and a known carcinogen with the molecular formula C6H6. ... For other uses, see Carbon (disambiguation). ... This article is about the chemistry of hydrogen. ... Year 1869 (MDCCCLXIX) is a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Friedrich Miescher Johan Friedrich Miescher (13 August 1844, Basel - 26 August 1895, Davos) was a Swiss biologist. ... Look up nucleic acid in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... HeLa cells stained for DNA with the Blue Hoechst dye. ... Year 1874 (MDCCCLXXIV) was a common year starting on Thursday (link with display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... ... Year 1876 (MDCCCLXXVI) // January 31 - United States orders all Indigenous peoples in the United States to move onto reservations February 2 - The National League of Professional Baseball Clubs of Major League Baseball is formed. ... Oskar Hertwig (April 21, 1849, Friedberg, Hessen - October 25, 1922, Berlin) was a German zoologist. ... Subclasses Subclass Perischoechinoidea Order Cidaroida (pencil urchins) Subclass Euechinoidea Superorder Atelostomata Order Cassiduloida Order Spatangoida (heart urchins) Superorder Diadematacea Order Diadematoida Order Echinothurioida Order Pedinoida Superorder Echinacea Order Arbacioida Order Echinoida Order Phymosomatoida Order Salenioida Order Temnopleuroida Superorder Gnathostomata Order Clypeasteroida (sand dollars) Order Holectypoida Wikispecies has information related to... Year 1884 (MDCCCLXXXIV) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Hermann Emil Fischer (October 9, 1852 - July 15, 1919) was a German chemist and recipient of the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1902. ... This article is about sugar as food and as an important and widely-traded commodity. ... Year 1892 (MDCCCXCII) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... Hans Adolf Eduard Driesch (October 28, 1867 - April 16, 1941) was a German biologist and philosopher. ... Year 1898 (MDCCCXCVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Martinus Willem Beijerinck (March 16, 1851 - January 1, 1931) was a Dutch microbiologist and botanist. ... The Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is an RNA virus that infects plants, especially tobacco, showing characteristic patterns (mottling and discoloration) on the leaves (thus the name). ... A common alternate meaning of virus is computer virus. ...

1900-1949

• 1900 - Two biologists independently rediscovered Mendel's paper on heredity.
• 1902 - Walter Sutton and Theodor Boveri, independently propose that the chromosomes carry the hereditary information.
• 1905 - William Bateson coins the term "genetics" to describe the study of biological inheritance.
• 1906 - Mikhail Tsvet discovers the chromatography technique for organic compound separation.
• 1907 - Ivan Pavlov demonstrates conditioned responses with salivating dogs.
• 1907 - Emil Fischer artificially synthesizes peptide amino acid chains and thereby shows that amino acids in proteins are connected by amino group-acid group bonds.
• 1909 - Wilhelm Johannsen coined the word "gene."
• 1911 - Thomas Hunt Morgan proposes that genes are arranged in a line on the chromosomes.
• 1926 - James Sumner shows that the urease enzyme is a protein.
• 1928 - Otto Diels and Kurt Alder discover the Diels-Alder cycloaddition reaction for forming ring molecules.
• 1928 - Alexander Fleming discovers the first antibiotic, penicillin
• 1929 - Phoebus Levene discovers the sugar deoxyribose in nucleic acids.
• 1929 - Edward Doisy and Adolf Butenandt independently discover estrone.
• 1930 - John Howard Northrop shows that the pepsin enzyme is a protein.
• 1931 - Adolf Butenandt discovers androsterone.
• 1932 - Hans Adolf Krebs discovers the urea cycle.
• 1933 - Tadeus Reichstein artificially synthesizes vitamin C; first vitamin synthesis.
• 1935 - Rudolf Schoenheimer uses deuterium as a tracer to examine the fat storage system of rats.
• 1935 - Wendell Stanley crystallizes the tobacco mosaic virus.
• 1935 - Konrad Lorenz describes the imprinting behavior of young birds.
• 1937 - Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin discovers the three-dimensional structure of cholesterol.
• 1937 - Hans Adolf Krebs discovers the tricarboxylic acid cycle.
• 1937 - In Genetics and the Origin of Species, Theodosius Dobzhansky applies the chromosome theory and population genetics to natural populations in the first mature work of neo-Darwinism, also called the modern synthesis, a term coined by Julian Huxley.
• 1938 - A living coelacanth is found off the coast of southern Africa.
• 1940 - Donald Griffin and Robert Galambos announce their discovery of sonar echolocation by bats.
• 1942 - Max Delbruck and Salvador Luria demonstrate that bacterial resistance to virus infection is caused by random mutation and not adaptive change.
• 1944 - Oswald Avery shows that DNA carries the hereditary information in pneumococcus bacteria.
• 1944 - Robert Burns Woodward and William von Eggers Doering synthesize quinine.
• 1945 - Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin discovers the three-dimensional structure of penicillin.
• 1948 - Erwin Chargaff shows that in DNA the number of guanine units equals the number of cytosine units and the number of adenine units equals the number of thymine units.

Äž: For the film, see: 1900 (film). ... Year 1902 (MCMII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday [1] of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Walter Stanborough Sutton (April 5, 1877 - November 10, 1916) was an American biologist whose most significant contribution to present-day biology was his theory that the Mendelian laws of inheritance could be applied to chromosomes at the cellular level. ... Theodor Boveri (1862 – 1915) was a German biologist whose work with sea urchins showed that it was necessary to have all chromosomes present in order for proper embryonic development to take place. ... For other uses, see 1905 (disambiguation). ... William Bateson. ... This article is about the general scientific term. ... Year 1906 (MCMVI) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Sunday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Mikhail Semyonovich Tsvet (Михаил Семенович Цвет, also spelled Tsvett, Tswett, Tswet, Zwet, and Cvet) (1872–1919) was a Russian botanist who invented adsorption chromatography. ... For the Second Person album, see Chromatography (album). ... Year 1907 (MCMVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... For other uses, see Pavlov (disambiguation). ... Trinomial name Canis lupus familiaris The dog (Canis lupus familiaris) is a domestic subspecies of the wolf, a mammal of the Canidae family of the order Carnivora. ... Year 1907 (MCMVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Peptides (from the Greek πεπτος, digestible), are the family of short molecules formed from the linking, in a defined order, of various α-amino acids. ... This article is about the class of chemicals. ... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin showing coloured alpha helices. ... Year 1909 (MCMIX) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Wilhelm Ludvig Johannsen (February 3, 1857 - November 11, 1927) was a Danish botanist. ... Year 1911 (MCMXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Thomas Hunt Morgan (September 25, 1866 – December 4, 1945) was an American geneticist and embryologist. ... For information about chromosomes in genetic algorithms, see chromosome (genetic algorithm). ... Year 1926 (MCMXXVI) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... James Batcheller Sumner (November 19, 1887 - August 12, 1955) was an American chemist. ... Helicobacter Pylori Urease drawn from PDB 1E9Z. Urease (EC 3. ... Year 1928 (MCMXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Otto Paul Hermann Diels (January 23, 1876 – March 7, 1954) was a German chemist. ... Kurt Alder (10 July 1902 - 20 June 1958) was a German chemist who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry jointly with Otto Paul Hermann Diels in 1950. ... Year 1928 (MCMXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Sir Alexander Fleming (6 August 1881 – 11 March 1955) was a Scottish biologist and pharmacologist. ... Penicillin core structure Penicillin (abbreviated PCN) is a group of β-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of bacterial infections caused by susceptible, usually Gram-positive, organisms. ... Year 1929 (MCMXXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Molecular diagram of a hypothetical tetranucleotide, as proposed (incorrectly) by Phoebus Levene around 1910. ... Deoxyribose Deoxyribose, also known as D-Deoxyribose and 2-deoxyribose, is an aldopentose — a monosaccharide containing five carbon atoms, and including an aldehyde functional group. ... Year 1929 (MCMXXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... This page meets Wikipedias criteria for speedy deletion. ... Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt (March 24, 1903 - January 18, 1995) was a German biochemist. ... Estrone (also oestrone) is an estrogenic hormone secreted by the ovary. ... Year 1930 (MCMXXX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display 1930 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... John Howard Northrop (July 5, 1891 – May 27, 1987) was an American biochemist who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1946 (with James Batcheller Sumner and Wendell Meredith Stanley) for purifying and crystallizing certain enzymes. ... Pepsin is a digestive protease (EC 3. ... Year 1931 (MCMXXXI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1931 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt (March 24, 1903 - January 18, 1995) was a German biochemist. ... Androsterone(ADT) is a steroid hormone with weak androgenic activity. ... Year 1932 (MCMXXXII) was a leap year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1932 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Sir Hans Adolf Krebs (August 25, 1900 – November 22, 1981) was a German, later British medical doctor and biochemist. ... The reactions of the urea cycle. ... Year 1933 (MCMXXXIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Tadeus Reichstein (July 20, 1897 - August 1, 1996) was a Polish Nobel Prize-winning chemist. ... This article is about the nutrient. ... Retinol (one vitamer of Vitamin A) A vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism. ... 1935 (MCMXXXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar). ... Rudolph Schoenheimer (May 10, 1898, - September 11, 1941) was a German/ US biochemist who developed the technique of radioactive tagging of molecules, enabling detailed study of metabolism. ... Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a stable isotope of hydrogen with a natural abundance in the oceans of Earth of approximately one atom in 6500 of hydrogen (~154 PPM). ... For other uses, see FAT. Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water. ... This article is about rats. ... 1935 (MCMXXXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar). ... Wendell Meredith Stanley (August 16, 1904 - June 15, 1971) was an American biochemist, virologist and Nobel prize laureate. ... For other uses, see Crystal (disambiguation). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... 1935 (MCMXXXV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar). ... Lorenz being followed by his imprinted geese Konrad Zacharias Lorenz (November 7, 1903 in Vienna – February 27, 1989 in Vienna) was an Austrian zoologist, animal psychologist, and ornithologist. ... Imprinting has different meanings in: Genetics: see imprinting (genetics) Psychology and ethology: see imprinting (psychology) In addition, the term imprint is used in publishing. ... For other uses, see Bird (disambiguation). ... Year 1937 (MCMXXXVII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Dorothy Mary Crowfoot Hodgkin, OM , FRS (12 May 1910 – 29 July 1994) was a British founder of protein crystallography. ... Cholesterol is a sterol (a combination steroid and alcohol). ... Year 1937 (MCMXXXVII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Sir Hans Adolf Krebs (August 25, 1900 – November 22, 1981) was a German, later British medical doctor and biochemist. ... Overview of the citric acid cycle The citric acid cycle (also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle, the TCA cycle, or the Krebs cycle, after Hans Adolf Krebs who identified the cycle) is a series of chemical reactions of central importance in all living cells that use oxygen as part... Year 1937 (MCMXXXVII) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Theodosius Dobzhansky, ca. ... The modern evolutionary synthesis (often referred to simply as the modern synthesis), neo-Darwinian synthesis or neo-Darwinism, brings together Charles Darwins theory of the evolution of species by natural selection with Gregor Mendels theory of genetics as the basis for biological inheritance. ... Sir Julian Sorell Huxley, FRS (June 22, 1887 – February 14, 1975) was a English biologist, author, Humanist and internationalist, known for his popularisations of science in books and lectures. ... Year 1938 (MCMXXXVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Families See text. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... Year 1940 (MCMXL) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Donald Redfield Griffin (August 3, 1915 - November 7, 2003) was an American professor of zoology at various universities who did seminal research in animal behavior, animal navigation, acoustic orientation and sensory biophysics. ... This article is about underwater sound propagation. ... Echolocation, also called Biosonar, is the biological sonar used by several mammals such as bats (although not all species), dolphins and whales (though not baleen whales). ... “Chiroptera” redirects here. ... Year 1942 (MCMXLII) was a common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Max Delbrück (September 4, 1906 - March 9, 1981) was a German biologist. ... Salvador Edward Luria (August 13, 1912 – February 6, 1991) was an Italian microbiologist whose pioneering work on phages helped open up molecular biology. ... Year 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Oswald Theodore Avery in 1937 Oswald Theodore Avery (October 21, 1877–2 February 1955) was a Canadian-born American physician and medical researcher. ... The structure of part of a DNA double helix Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is a nucleic acid molecule that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms. ... Binomial name Streptococcus pneumoniae Streptococcus pneumoniae is a species of Streptococcus that is a major human pathogen. ... Year 1944 (MCMXLIV) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Robert Burns Woodward (April 10, 1917–July 8, 1979) was an American organic chemist. ... William von Eggers Doering is a Professor Emeritus at Harvard University and the former Chair of its Chemistry Department. ... Quinine (IPA: ) is a natural white crystalline alkaloid having antipyretic (fever-reducing), anti-smallpox, analgesic (painkilling), and anti-inflammatory properties and a bitter taste. ... Year 1945 (MCMXLV) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar). ... Dorothy Mary Crowfoot Hodgkin, OM , FRS (12 May 1910 – 29 July 1994) was a British founder of protein crystallography. ... Penicillin core structure Penicillin (abbreviated PCN) is a group of β-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of bacterial infections caused by susceptible, usually Gram-positive, organisms. ... Year 1948 (MCMXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... // Erwin Chargaff (Czernowitz, August 11, 1905 – New York City, USA, June 20, 2002) was an Austrian biochemist who emigrated to the United States during the Nazi era. ... Guanine is one of the five main nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA; the others being adenine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil. ... Cytosine is one of the 5 main nucleobases used in storing and transporting genetic information within a cell in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. It is a pyrimidine derivative, with a heterocyclic aromatic ring and two substituents attached (an amine group at position 4 and a keto group at... For the programming language Adenine, see Adenine (programming language). ... For the similarly-spelled vitamin compound, see Thiamine Thymine, also known as 5-methyluracil, is a pyrimidine nucleobase. ...

1950-1989

• 1951 - Robert Woodward synthesizes cholesterol and cortisone.
• 1952 - American developmental biologists Robert Briggs and Thomas King clone the first vertebrate by transplanting nuclei from leopard frogs embryos into enucleated eggs. More differentiated cells were the less able they are to direct development in the enucleated egg.
• 1952 - Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase show that DNA is the genetic material in bacteriophage viruses.
• 1952 - Fred Sanger, Hans Tuppy, and Ted Thompson complete their chromatographic analysis of the insulin amino acid sequence.
• 1952 - Rosalind Franklin concludes that DNA is a double helix with a diameter of 2 nm and the sugar-phosphate backbones on the outside of the helix, based on x ray diffraction studies. She suspects the two sugar-phosphate backbones have a peculiar relationship to each other.
• 1953 - After examining Franklin's unpublished data, James D. Watson and Francis Crick publish a double-helix structure for DNA, with one sugar-phosphate backbone running in the opposite direction to the other. They further suggest a mechanism by which the molecule can replicate itself and serve to transmit genetic information. Their paper, combined with the Hershey-Chase experiment and Chargaff's data on nucleotides, finally persuades biologists that DNA is the genetic material, not protein.
• 1953 - Max Perutz and John Kendrew determine the structure of hemoglobin using X-ray diffraction studies.
• 1953 - Stanley Miller shows that amino acids can be formed when simulated lightning is passed through vessels containing water, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen
• 1954 - Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin discovers the three-dimensional structure of vitamin B-12.
• 1955 - Marianne Grunberg-Manago and Severo Ochoa discover the first nucleic-acid-synthesizing enzyme (polynucleotide phosphorylase), which links nucleotides together into polynucleotides.
• 1955 - Arthur Kornberg discovers DNA polymerase enzymes.
• 1958 - Matthew Stanley Meselson and Franklin W. Stahl prove that DNA replication is semiconservative in the Meselson-Stahl experiment
• 1959 - Severo Ochoa and Arthur Kornberg receive a Nobel Prize for their work.
• 1959 - Max Perutz describes the structure of hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein in blood.
• 1960 - John Kendrew describes the structure of myoglobin, the oxygen-carrying protein in muscle.
• 1960 - Four separate researchers (S. Weiss, J. Hurwitz, Audrey Stevens and J. Bonner) discover bacterial RNA polymerase, which polymerizes nucleotides under the direction of DNA.
• 1960 - Juan Oro finds that concentrated solutions of ammonium cyanide in water can produce the nucleotide organic base adenine.
• 1960 - Robert Woodward synthesizes chlorophyll.
• 1961 - German plant physiologist H. J. Matthaei cracks the first codon of the genetic code (the codon for the amino acid phenylalanine) using Grunberg-Manago's enzyme system for making polynucleotides.
• 1962 - Max Perutz and John Kendrew share a Nobel prize for their work on the structure of hemoglobin and myoglobin.
• 1965 - Genetic code fully cracked through trial-and-error experimental work.
• 1966 - Kimishige Ishizaka discovers a new type of immunoglobulin, IgE, that develops allergy and explains the mechanisms of allergy at molecular and cellular levels.
• 1967 - John Gurden uses nuclear transplantation to clone an African clawed frog; first cloning of a vertebrate using a nucleus from a fully differentiated adult cell.
• 1968 - Fred Sanger uses radioactive phosphorus as a tracer to chromatographically decipher a 120 base long RNA sequence.
• 1969 - Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin discovers the three-dimensional structure of insulin.
• 1970 - Hamilton Smith and Daniel Nathans discover DNA restriction enzymes.
• 1970 - Howard Temin and David Baltimore independently discover reverse transcriptase enzymes.
• 1972 - Albert Eschenmoser and Robert Woodward synthesize vitamin B-12.
• 1972 - Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge propose an idea they call "punctuated equilibrium," which states that the fossil record is an accurate depiction of the pace of evolution, with long periods of "stasis" (little change) punctuated by brief periods of rapid change and species formation (within a lineage).
• 1972 - SJ Singer and GL Nicholson develop the fluid mosaic model, which deals with the make-up of the membrane of all cells.
• 1974 - Manfred Eigen and Manfred Sumper show that mixtures of nucleotide monomers and RNA replicase will give rise to RNA molecules which replicate, mutate, and evolve.
• 1974 - Leslie Orgel shows that RNA can replicate without RNA-replicase and that zinc aids this replication.
• 1977 - John Corliss, Jack Dymond, Louis Gordon, John Edmond, Richard von Herzen, Robert Ballard, Kenneth Green, David Williams, Arnold Bainbridge, Kathy Crane, and Tjeerd van Andel discover chemosynthetically based animal communities located around submarine hydrothermal vents on the Galapagos Rift.
• 1977 - Walter Gilbert and Allan Maxam present a rapid DNA sequencing technique which uses cloning, base destroying chemicals, and gel electrophoresis.
• 1977 - Frederick Sanger and Alan Coulson present a rapid gene sequencing technique which uses dideoxynucleotides and gel electrophoresis.
• 1978 - Frederick Sanger presents the 5,386 base sequence for the virus PhiX174; first sequencing of an entire genome.
• 1982 - Stanley B. Prusiner proposes the existence of infectious proteins, or prions. His idea is widely derided in the scientific community, but he wins a Nobel Prize in 1997.
• 1983 - Kary Mullis invents "PCR" ( polymerase chain reaction), an automated method for rapidly copying sequences of DNA.
• 1984 - Alec Jeffreys devises a genetic fingerprinting method.
• 1985 - Harry Kroto, J.R. Heath, S.C. O'Brien, R.F. Curl, and Richard Smalley discover the unusual stability of the buckminsterfullerene molecule and deduce its structure.
• 1986 - Alexander Klibanov demonstrates that enzymes can function in non-aqueous environments.

Year 1951 (MCMLI) was a common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... This article or section should be merged with Robert B. Woodward You may be looking for journalist Bob Woodward, who is noted for his work in uncovering the Watergate scandal. ... Cholesterol is a sterol (a combination steroid and alcohol). ... Cortisone (IPA:ˈkôrtəˌsōn) is a steroid hormone. ... Year 1952 (MCMLII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1952 (MCMLII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Alfred Day Hershey (December 4, 1908 – May 22, 1997) was an American Nobel Prize-winning bacteriologist. ... Martha Cowles Chase (1927 – 2003) was a young laboratory assistant in the early 1950s when she and Alfred Hershey conducted one of the most famous experiments in 20th century biology. ... An artists rendering of an Enterobacteria phage T4. ... Year 1952 (MCMLII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... This article or section should be merged with Frederick Sanger Fred Sanger (born 1918), is an English biochemist, the winner of two Nobel prizes in Chemistry. ... Hans Tuppy (born 22 July 1924 in Vienna) is a biochemist who was minister for science and research in the Austrian government during the chancellorship of Franz Vranitzky, until 24. ... Ted Thompson (Born January 17, 1953 in Atlanta, TX) is the general manager of the Green Bay Packers, a National Football League team. ... Not to be confused with inulin. ... Year 1952 (MCMLII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Rosalind Elsie Franklin (25 July 1920 Kensington, London – 16 April 1958 Chelsea, London) was an English biophysicist and X-ray crystallographer who made important contributions to the understanding of the fine structures of DNA, viruses, coal and graphite. ... The structure of part of a DNA double helix Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is a nucleic acid molecule that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms. ... Year 1953 (MCMLIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... For other people named James Watson, see James Watson (disambiguation). ... Francis Harry Compton Crick OM FRS (8 June 1916 – 28 July 2004), (Ph. ... The structure of part of a DNA double helix Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is a nucleic acid molecule that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms. ... Hershey is an unincorporated community within Derry Township in Dauphin County in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania. ... Look up chase in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Year 1953 (MCMLIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Max Ferdinand Perutz, OM (May 19, 1914 – February 6, 2002) was an Austrian-British molecular biologist. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Structure of hemoglobin. ... Year 1953 (MCMLIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Stanley Lloyd Miller (born March 7, 1930) is an American chemist famous for his role in the Miller-Urey experiment he performed in 1953, while a graduate student. ... Not to be confused with lighting. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... Methane is a chemical compound with the molecular formula . ... For other uses, see Ammonia (disambiguation). ... This article is about the chemistry of hydrogen. ... Year 1954 (MCMLIV) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1954 Gregorian calendar). ... Dorothy Mary Crowfoot Hodgkin, OM , FRS (12 May 1910 – 29 July 1994) was a British founder of protein crystallography. ... Cobalamin or vitamin B12 is a chemical compound that is also known as cyanocobalamine. ... Year 1955 (MCMLV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1955 Gregorian calendar). ... Dr. Marianne Grunberg-Manago, PhD, (born 1921, Saint Petersburg, former Soviet Union) is an eminent French biochemist. ... Severo Ochoa Statue outside the School of Medicine of the Complutense University of Madrid (UCM). ... Year 1955 (MCMLV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1955 Gregorian calendar). ... Arthur Kornberg Arthur Kornberg (born March 3, 1918) is an American biochemist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1959 for his discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) together with Dr. Severo Ochoa of New York University. ... 3D structure of the DNA-binding helix-hairpin-helix motifs in human DNA polymerase beta A DNA polymerase is an enzyme that assists in DNA replication. ... Jan. ... Matthew Stanley Meselson (b. ... Semiconservative replication describes the method by which DNA is replicated in all known cells. ... A summary of the three postulated methods of DNA synthesis The Meselson-Stahl experiment was an experiment by Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl to prove that DNA replication was semiconservative. ... Year 1959 (MCMLIX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Severo Ochoa Statue outside the School of Medicine of the Complutense University of Madrid (UCM). ... Arthur Kornberg Arthur Kornberg (born March 3, 1918) is an American biochemist who won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1959 for his discovery of the mechanisms in the biological synthesis of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) together with Dr. Severo Ochoa of New York University. ... Year 1959 (MCMLIX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Max Ferdinand Perutz, OM (May 19, 1914 – February 6, 2002) was an Austrian-British molecular biologist. ... Structure of hemoglobin. ... Year 1960 (MCMLX) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... An X-ray diffraction image for the protein myoglobin. ... Year 1960 (MCMLX) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1960 (MCMLX) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1960 (MCMLX) was a leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... This article or section should be merged with Robert B. Woodward You may be looking for journalist Bob Woodward, who is noted for his work in uncovering the Watergate scandal. ... Year 1961 (MCMLXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1962 (MCMLXII) was a common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Max Ferdinand Perutz, OM (May 19, 1914 – February 6, 2002) was an Austrian-British molecular biologist. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Structure of hemoglobin. ... An X-ray diffraction image for the protein myoglobin. ... Year 1965 (MCMLXV) was a common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar) of the 1965 Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1966 (MCMLXVI) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar) of the 1966 Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1967 (MCMLXVII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar) of the 1967 Gregorian calendar. ... For the cloning of human beings, see human cloning. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Year 1968 (MCMLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... General Name, symbol, number phosphorus, P, 15 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 15, 3, p Appearance waxy white/ red/ black/ colorless Standard atomic weight 30. ... Decipherment is the analysis of documents written in ancient languages, where the language is unknown, or knowledge of the language has been lost. ... Also: 1969 (number) 1969 (movie) 1969 (Stargate SG-1) episode. ... Dorothy Mary Crowfoot Hodgkin, OM , FRS (12 May 1910 – 29 July 1994) was a British founder of protein crystallography. ... Not to be confused with inulin. ... Year 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Hamilton Smith (1931- ) is a Nobel prize winning geneticist. ... Daniel Nathans (October 30, 1928 - November 16, 1999) was a U.S. microbiologist. ... A restriction enzyme (or restriction endonuclease) is an enzyme that cuts double-stranded DNA. The enzyme makes two incisions, one through each of the sugar-phosphate backbones (i. ... Year 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Howard Martin Temin (1934 - 1994) was a U.S. geneticist. ... David Baltimore (b. ... In biochemistry, a reverse transcriptase, also known as RNA-dependent DNA polymerase, is a DNA polymerase enzyme that transcribes single-stranded RNA into double-stranded DNA. Normal transcription involves the synthesis of RNA from DNA, hence reverse transcription is the reverse of this. ... Year 1972 (MCMLXXII) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Albert Eschenmoser is a Swiss chemist working at the ETH Zurich. ... This article or section should be merged with Robert B. Woodward You may be looking for journalist Bob Woodward, who is noted for his work in uncovering the Watergate scandal. ... Cobalamin or vitamin B12 is a chemical compound that is also known as cyanocobalamine. ... Year 1972 (MCMLXXII) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Stephen Jay Gould (September 10, 1941 – May 20, 2002) was an American paleontologist, evolutionary biologist, and historian of science. ... Dr. Niles Eldredge (born August 25, 1943) is an American paleontologist, who, along with Stephen Jay Gould, proposed the theory of punctuated equilibrium in 1972. ... Punctuated equilibrium (or punctuated equilibria) is a theory in evolutionary biology which states that most sexually reproducing species will show little to no evolutionary change throughout their history. ... Year 1972 (MCMLXXII) was a leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1974 (MCMLXXIV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the 1974 Gregorian calendar. ... Manfred Eigen (born May 9, 1927, Bochum) is a German biophysicist and a former director of the Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry in Göttingen. ... RNA replicase is a polymerase enzyme that catalyzes the self-replication of single-stranded RNA. it is RNA dependent RNA plwhich is not haVING PRROFREEDING ACTIVITY. THIS IS ANOTHER EXTENSION IN THE CENTRADOGMA. IT IS MADE UP OF THREE SUBUNIT. Categories: | ... Year 1974 (MCMLXXIV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar) of the 1974 Gregorian calendar. ... Leslie Eleazer Orgel (born Jan 12, 1927 in London) is a chemist. ... General Name, symbol, number zinc, Zn, 30 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 12, 4, d Appearance bluish pale gray Standard atomic weight 65. ... Also: 1977 (album) by Ash. ... John B. (Jack) Corliss is a scientist who has worked in the fields of geology, oceanography, and the origins of life. ... Robert D. Ballard Robert Duane Ballard, Ph. ... // David Williams is the name of: David Williams (didgeridoo), (born 1983) Aboriginal musician and artist David Williams (Son of Dork), a guitarist in the British band Son of Dork David Williams, Welsh musician with the New Wave/Rock band, The Dear & Departed D. J. Williams (1885–1970), Welsh nationalist leader... A hydrothermal vent A hydrothermal vent is a fissure in a planets surface from which geothermally heated water issues. ... Also: 1977 (album) by Ash. ... Walter Gilbert Walter Gilbert (born March 21, 1932) is an American physicist, biochemist,and molecular biology pioneer. ... Allan Maxam is one of the pioneers of molecular genetics. ... The term DNA sequencing encompasses biochemical methods for determining the order of the nucleotide bases, adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine, in a DNA oligonucleotide. ... Gel electrophoresis is a technique used for the separation of deoxyribonucleic acid, ribonucleic acid, or protein molecules using an electric current applied to a gel matrix. ... Also: 1977 (album) by Ash. ... Year 1978 (MCMLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays the 1978 Gregorian calendar). ... In biology the genome of an organism is the whole hereditary information of an organism that is encoded in the DNA (or, for some viruses, RNA). ... Year 1982 (MCMLXXXII) was a common year starting on Friday (link displays the 1982 Gregorian calendar). ... Stanley Ben Prusiner (born May 28, 1942[1]) is an American neurologist and biochemist. ... For the bird, see Prion (bird). ... For the band, see 1997 (band). ... For the Jimi Hendrix song, see 1983. ... Kary Banks Mullis, Ph. ... “PCR” redirects here. ... This article is about the year. ... Professor Sir Alec John Jeffreys, FRS, (born in 9 January 1950 at Luton in Bedfordshire) is a British geneticist, who developed techniques for DNA fingerprinting and DNA profiling. ... Genetic fingerprinting, DNA testing, DNA typing, and DNA profiling are techniques used to distinguish between individuals of the same species using only samples of their DNA. Its invention by Dr. Alec Jeffreys at the University of Leicester was announced in 1985. ... This article is about the year. ... Sir Harold Walter Kroto KBE FRS (born October 7, 1939) is an English chemist. ... Robert Floyd Curl, Jr. ... Richard Errett Smalley Richard Errett Smalley (June 6, 1943 – October 28, 2005) was the Gene and Norman Hackerman Professor of Chemistry and a Professor of Physics and Astronomy at Rice University, in Houston, Texas. ... Buckminsterfullerene (C60) Fullerenes are molecules composed entirely of carbon, taking the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, or tube. ... Year 1986 (MCMLXXXVI) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link displays 1986 Gregorian calendar). ... Alexander Klibanov is a professor of chemistry and bioengineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and a member of the National Academy of Science. ...

1990-present

• 1990 - Napoli, Lemieux and Jorgensen discover RNA interference (1990) during experiments aimed at the color of petunias.
• 1990 - Wolfgang Krätschmer, Lowell Lamb, Konstantinos Fostiropoulos, and Donald Huffman discover that Buckminsterfullerene can be separated from soot because it is soluble in benzene.
• 1995 - Publication of the first complete genome of a free-living organism.
• 1996 - Dolly the sheep is first clone of an adult mammal.
• 2001 - Publication of the first drafts of the complete human genome.
• 2002 - First virus produced 'from scratch,' an artificial polio virus that paralyzes and kills mice.

This article is about the year. ... Cells use dicer to trim double stranded RNA to form small interfering RNA or microRNA. An exogenous dsRNA or endogenous pre-miRNA can be processed by dicer and incorporated into the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), which targets single-stranded messenger RNA molecules and triggers translational repression;[1] incorporation into... Petunia is a widely-cultivated genus of flowering plants of South American origin, in the family Solanaceae. ... This article is about the year. ... Soot, also called lampblack, Pigment Black 7, carbon black or black carbon, is a dark powdery deposit of unburned fuel residues, usually composed mainly of amorphous carbon, that accumulates in chimneys, automobile mufflers and other surfaces exposed to smoke—especially from the combustion of carbon-rich organic fuels in the... Benzene, or Benzol (see also Benzine), is an organic chemical compound and a known carcinogen with the molecular formula C6H6. ... Year 1995 (MCMXCV) was a common year starting on Sunday. ... Year 1996 (MCMXCVI) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar). ... Dolly (July 5, 1996 – February 14, 2003), a ewe, was the first mammal to have been successfully cloned from an adult somatic cell. ... This article is about the year. ... Also see: 2002 (number). ...

See also

• Timeline of medicine and medical technology
• History of biology
• History of chemistry

Timeline of medicine and medical technology // c. ... The history of biology dates as far back as the rise of various civilization as classic philosophers did their own ways of biology as a system of understanding life. ... Portrait of Monsieur Lavoisier and his Wife, by Jacques-Louis David The history of chemistry is long and convoluted. ...

Footnote

1. ^ A Tribute to Hinduism states Sushruta lived in the 5th century B.C.
2. ^ Conway Zirkle (1941), Natural Selection before the "Origin of Species", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 84 (1): 71-123.
3. ^ Mehmet Bayrakdar, "Al-Jahiz And the Rise of Biological Evolutionism", The Islamic Quarterly, Third Quarter, 1983, London.
4. ^ Frank N. Egerton, "A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 6: Arabic Language Science - Origins and Zoological", Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America, April 2002: 142-146 [143]
5. ^ Lawrence I. Conrad (1982), "Taun and Waba: Conceptions of Plague and Pestilence in Early Islam", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 25 (3), pp. 268-307 [278].
6. ^ Fahd, Toufic, “Botany and agriculture”, pp. 815 , in Morelon, Régis & Roshdi Rashed (1996), Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, vol. 3, Routledge, ISBN 0415124107
7. ^ G. Stolyarov II (2002), "Rhazes: The Thinking Western Physician", The Rational Argumentator, Issue VI.
8. ^ D. Craig Brater and Walter J. Daly (2000), "Clinical pharmacology in the Middle Ages: Principles that presage the 21st century", Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 67 (5), p. 447-450 [449].
9. ^ The Canon of Medicine (work by Avicenna), Encyclopædia Britannica
10. ^ Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4), p. 357-377 [375].
11. ^ Islamic medicine, Hutchinson Encyclopedia.
12. ^ Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2006), "Contributions of Muhadhdhab Al-Deen Al-Baghdadi to the progress of medicine and urology", Saudi Medical Journal 27 (11): 1631-1641.
13. ^ Rabie E. Abdel-Halim (2005), "Contributions of Ibn Zuhr (Avenzoar) to the progress of surgery: A study and translations from his book Al-Taisir", Saudi Medical Journal 2005; Vol. 26 (9): 1333-1339.
14. ^ Emilie Savage-Smith (1996), "Medicine", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Vol. 3, p. 903-962 [951-952]. Routledge, London and New York.
15. ^ Huff, Toby (2003), The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West, Cambridge University Press, p. 218, ISBN 0521529948 
16. ^ Diane Boulanger (2002), "The Islamic Contribution to Science, Mathematics and Technology", OISE Papers, in STSE Education, Vol. 3.
17. ^ S. A. Al-Dabbagh (1978). "Ibn Al-Nafis and the pulmonary circulation", The Lancet 1, p. 1148.
18. ^ Husain F. Nagamia (2003), "Ibn al-Nafīs: A Biographical Sketch of the Discoverer of Pulmonary and Coronary Circulation", Journal of the International Society for the History of Islamic Medicine 1, p. 22–28.
19. ^ Matthijs Oudkerk (2004), Coronary Radiology, "Preface", Springer Science+Business Media, ISBN 3540436405.
20. ^ Chairman's Reflections (2004), "Traditional Medicine Among Gulf Arabs, Part II: Blood-letting", Heart Views 5 (2), p. 74-85 [80].

v • d • e History of biology Fields and disciplines Natural history • History of agriculture • History of medicine • History of anatomy • History of zoology (through 1859)• History of plant systematics • History of geology • History of paleontology • History of evolutionary thought • History of zoology (1859–1912) • History of ecology • History of model organisms • History of phycology • History of genetics • History of biochemistry • History of agricultural science • History of molecular biology • History of molecular evolution • History of immunology • History of biotechnology Institutions Rothamsted Experimental Station • Pasteur Institute • Max Planck Society • Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory • Stazione Zoologica • Marine Biological Laboratory • Rockefeller University • Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute • Laboratory of Molecular Biology Experiments Griffith's experiment • Miller-Urey experiment • Luria-Delbrück experiment • Hershey-Chase experiment • Meselson-Stahl experiment • Crick, Brenner et al. experiment • Nirenberg and Matthaei experiment • Nirenberg and Leder experiment Publications On Generation and Corruption • Historia Plantarum • De humani corporis fabrica • De motu cordis • Micrographia • Systema Naturae • Philosophie Zoologique • Principles of Geology • Vestiges of Creation • The Origin of Species • "Experiments on Plant Hybridization" • The Descent of Man • "The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance" • What is Life? • Genetics and the Origin of Species • "Molecular structure of Nucleic Acids" Influential figures Aristotle • Andreas Vesalius • William Harvey • Antonie van Leeuwenhoek • Carolus Linnaeus • Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon • Jean-Baptiste Lamarck • Alexander von Humboldt • Charles Lyell • Charles Darwin • Alfred Russel Wallace • Gregor Mendel • Louis Pasteur • Robert Koch • Ernst Haeckel • Ivan Pavlov • Hugo de Vries • E. B. Wilson • Thomas Hunt Morgan • Aleksandr Oparin • Alexander Fleming • J. B. S. Haldane • Sewall Wright • R. A. Fisher • Konrad Lorenz • Barbara McClintock • Theodosius Dobzhansky • Ernst Mayr • George Beadle • Seymour Benzer • Rosalind Franklin • James D. Watson • Francis Crick • Fred Sanger • Max Perutz • John Kendrew • Sydney Brenner • Joshua Lederberg • Walter Gilbert • Kary Mullis • Stephen Jay Gould • Lynn Margulis • Carl Woese • Jane Goodall Related topics History of science • History of medicine • Philosophy of biology • Timeline of biology and organic chemistry • Natural philosophy • Natural theology • Humboldtian science • Relationship between religion and science • Eugenics • Human Genome Project • Darwin Day • History of creationism • History of the creation-evolution controversy