Tuatara
Male tuatara
Conservation status
Vulnerable
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Sauropsida Order: Sphenodontia Family: Sphenodontidae Genus: Sphenodon Gray, 1831
Current distribution of tuatara (in black).[1][2][3] Circles represent the North Island tuatara, squares the Brothers Island tuatara. Symbols may represent up to seven islands.
Species
Sphenodon punctatus (Gray, 1842) Sphenodon guntheri (Buller, 1877) Sphenodon diversum Colenso, 1885 (extinct) Tuatara, in a promotional shot for their second album, Trading With the Enemy Tuatara is a Seattle-based collective experimental band, featuring members of R.E.M., Minus 5, and the Screaming Trees. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (3264 × 2448 pixel, file size: 1. ... The conservation status of a species is an indicator of the likelihood of that species remaining extant either in the present day or the near future. ... This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it. ... Scientific classification or biological classification refers to how biologists group and categorize extinct and living species of organisms. ... For other uses, see Animal (disambiguation). ... Typical Classes See below Chordates (phylum Chordata) are a group of animals that includes the vertebrates, together with several closely related invertebrates. ... Reptilia redirects here. ... Families Gephyrosauridae Pleurosauridae Sphenodontidae Sphenodontia is an order of lizard-like reptiles that includes only one living genus, the tuatara (Sphenodon). ... Families Gephyrosauridae Pleurosauridae Sphenodontidae Sphenodontia is an order of lizard-like reptiles that includes only one living genus, the tuatara (Sphenodon). ... John Edward Gray. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Sir Walter Lawry Buller (October 9, 1838 - July 19, 1906) was a New Zealand lawyer, naturalist and ornithologist. ...
Synonyms
Hatteria punctata, Gray 1842 In scientific nomenclature, synonyms are different scientific names used for a single taxon. ...

The tuatara is an Sphenodontian endemic to New Zealand. The two species of tuatara are the only surviving members of the Sphenodontians which flourished around 200 million years ago,^[4] and are in the genus Sphenodon. Tuatara resemble lizards, but are equally related to lizards and snakes, both of which are classified as Squamata, the closest living relatives of tuatara. For this reason, tuatara are of great interest in the study of the evolution of lizards and snakes, and for the reconstruction of the appearance and habits of the earliest diapsids (the group that additionally includes birds and crocodiles). Families Gephyrosauridae Pleurosauridae Sphenodontidae Sphenodontia is an order of lizard-like reptiles that includes only one living genus, the tuatara (Sphenodon). ... Endemic, in a broad sense, can mean belonging or native to, characteristic of, or prevalent in a particular geography, race, field, area, or environment; Native to an area or scope. ... For other uses, see Lizard (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Snake (disambiguation). ... Suborders Lacertilia- Lizards Serpentes - Snakes Amphisbaenia - Worm lizards This article is about the Squamata order of reptiles. ... Groups See Text Diapsids (two arches) are a group of tetrapod animals that developed two holes (temporal fenestra) in each side of their skulls, about 300 million years ago during the late Carboniferous period. ... For other uses, see Bird (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Crocodile (disambiguation). ...

Tuatara are greenish brown, and measure up to 80 cm (32 in) from head to tail-tip^[5] with a spiny crest along the back, especially pronounced in males. Their dentition, in which two rows of teeth in the upper jaw overlap one row on the lower jaw, is unique among living species. They are further unusual in having a pronounced parietal eye, dubbed the "third eye", whose current function is a subject of ongoing research. They are able to hear although no external ear is present, and have a number of unique features in their skeleton, some of them apparently evolutionarily retained from fish. Although commonly regarded as "living fossils", recent taxonomic and molecular work has shown that tuataras have been through many changes since the Mesozoic era. A parietal eye, also known as a parietal organ or third-eye is a part of the epithalamus present in some animal species. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Mesozoic Era is one of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic eon. ...

The tuatara has been classified as an endangered species since 1895^[6][7] (the second species, S. guntheri, was not recognised until 1989).^[5] Tuatara, like many of New Zealand's native animals, are threatened by habitat loss and the introduced Polynesian Rat (Rattus exulans). They were extinct on the mainland, with the remaining populations confined to 32 offshore islands,^[8] until the first mainland release into the heavily fenced and monitored Karori Wildlife Sanctuary in 2005.^[9] The Siberian Tiger is a subspecies of tiger that are critically endangered. ... Binomial name Rattus exulans (Peale, 1848) The Polynesian Rat or Pacific Rat (Rattus exulans), known to the Maori as Kiore, is the third most widespread species of rat in the world behind the Brown Rat and Black Rat. ... Lower Karori Reservoir looking North-East Karori Wildlife Sanctuary is a protected natural area in Wellington, New Zealand, where the bio-diversity of 252 ha (just under a square mile) of forest is being restored. ...

The name "tuatara" derives from the Māori language, and means "peaks on the back".^[10] As with many other Māori loanwords, the plural form is now generally the same as the singular in formal New Zealand English usage. "Tuataras" remains common in less formal speech, particularly among older speakers. Māori or Te Reo Māori,[1] commonly shortened to Te Reo (literally the language) functions as one of the official languages of New Zealand. ...

Taxonomy and evolution

Tuatara, and their sister group Squamata (which includes lizards, snakes and amphisbaenians), belong to the superorder Lepidosauria, the only surviving taxon within Lepidosauromorpha. Squamates and tuatara both show caudal autotomy (loss of the tail-tip when threatened), and have a transverse cloacal slit.^[11] The origin of the tuatara probably lies close to the split between the Lepidosauromorpha and the Archosauromorpha. Though tuatara resemble lizards, the similarity is superficial, since the family has several characteristics unique among reptiles. The typical lizard shape is very common for the early amniotes; the oldest known fossil of a reptile, the Hylonomus, resembles a modern lizard.^[12] Suborders Lacertilia- Lizards Serpentes - Snakes Amphisbaenia - Worm lizards This article is about the Squamata order of reptiles. ... Families Amphisbaenidae Trogonophidae Bipedidae Suborder Amphisbaenia is a group of peculiar legless squamates distantly related to lizards and snakes, in spite of their resemblance to worms (due to their pink color and scales arranged in rings). ... Orders Sphenodontia Squamata Eosuchia Conservation status: Fossil The Lepidosauria are a subclass of reptiles comprising the orders : Squamata Sphenodontia or Rhynchocephalia Eosuchia Conservation status: Fossil Lepidosaurians are the most successful of modern reptiles. ... Orders Sphenodontia Squamata Eosuchia Conservation status: Fossil The Lepidosauria are a subclass of reptiles comprising the orders : Squamata Sphenodontia or Rhynchocephalia Eosuchia Conservation status: Fossil Lepidosaurians are the most successful of modern reptiles. ... Orders See text Archosauromorpha (Greek for ruling lizard forms) is an Infraclass of diapsid reptiles that first appeared during the late Permian and became more common during the Triassic. ... Reptilia redirects here. ... Extant subgroups Synapsida     Mammalia (mammals) Sauropsida    Anapsida        Testudines (turtles)    Diapsida        Lepidosauria           Squamata (lizards and snakes)           Sphenodontida (tuatara)        Archosauria           Crocodilia (crocodiles and alligators)           Aves (birds) The amniotes are a group of vertebrates, comprising the mammals, birds, and various other groups collectively referred to as reptiles. ... Hylonomus lyelli was an early reptile. ...

Cladogram showing relationships of extant members of the Sauria.^[13] Numbered items are:
1. Tuatara
2. Lizards
3. Snakes
4. Crocodiles
5. Birds
"Lizards" are polyphyletic. Branch lengths do not indicate divergence times.

Tuatara were originally classified as lizards in 1831 when the British Museum received a skull.^[14] The genus remained misclassified until 1867, when Albert Günther of the British Museum noted features similar to birds, turtles and crocodiles. He proposed the order Rhynchocephalia (meaning "beak head") for the tuatara and its fossil relatives.^[15] Now, most authors prefer to use the more exclusive order name of Sphenodontia for the tuatara and its closest living relatives.^[16] Image File history File links Tuatara_cladogram. ... Image File history File links Tuatara_cladogram. ... It has been suggested that Clade be merged into this article or section. ... In phylogenetics, a taxon is polyphyletic (Greek for of many races) if the trait its members have in common evolved separately in different places in the phylogenetic tree. ... London museum | name = British Museum | image = British Museum from NE 2. ... Albrecht Carl Ludwig Gotthilf Günther. ...

Many disparately related species were subsequently added to the Rhynchocephalia, resulting in what taxonomists call a "wastebasket taxon".^[17] Williston proposed the Sphenodontia to include only tuatara and their closest fossil relatives in 1925.^[17] Sphenodon is derived from the Greek for "wedge" (sphenos) and "tooth" (odon(t)).^[18] Wastebin taxon (also called a wastebasket, or dustbin taxon) is a term used in taxonomic circles that refers to a taxon that has the sole purpose of classifying organisms that dont fit anywhere else. ... Samuel Wendell Williston Samuel Wendell Williston (July 10, 1852 – August 30, 1918) was a noted educator and paleontologist. ...

Tuatara have been referred to as living fossils.^[19] This means that they have remained mostly unchanged throughout their entire history, which is approximately 220 million years.^[20] However, taxonomic work^[21] on Sphenodontia has shown that this group has undergone a variety of changes throughout the Mesozoic, and a recent molecular study showed that their rate of molecular evolution is faster than of any other animal so far examined.^[22][23] Many of the niches occupied by lizards today were then held by sphenodontians. There was even a successful group of aquatic sphenodontians known as pleurosaurs, which differed markedly from living tuatara. Tuatara show cold weather adaptations that allow them to thrive on the islands of New Zealand; these adaptations may be unique to tuatara since their sphenodontian ancestors lived in the much warmer climates of the Mesozoic. This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... For the science of classifying living things, see alpha taxonomy. ... Mesozoic Era is one of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic eon. ... This page is about Lizards, the order of reptile. ... Binomial name Pleurosaurus goldfussi Pleurosaurusesejfdodmjjdi is an extinct genus of diapsid reptile belonging to the sphenodont order. ... Mesozoic Era is one of three geologic eras of the Phanerozoic eon. ...

There are two extant species: Sphenodon punctatus and the much rarer Sphenodon guntheri, or Brothers Island tuatara, which is confined to North Brother Island in Cook Strait.^[24] The species name punctatus is Latin for "spotted",^[25] and guntheri refers to Albert Günther. S. punctatus was named when only one species was known, and its name is misleading, since both species can have spots. The Brother's Island tuatara (S. guntheri) has olive brown skin with yellowish patches, while the colour of the other species, (S. punctatus), ranges from olive green through grey to dark pink or brick red, often mottled, and always with white spots.^[9][11][26] In addition, S. guntheri is considerably smaller.^[27] The Brothers is a group of tiny islands in Cook Strait, New Zealand, found off the west coast of Arapawa Island. ... A view from the summit of Mount Victoria, Wellington - Cook Strait stretches to the right (west). ... Latin was the language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ... Albrecht Carl Ludwig Gotthilf Günther. ...

Sphenodon punctatus is further divided into two subspecies: the Cook Strait tuatara (unnamed subspecies), which lives on other islands in and near Cook Strait, and the northern tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus punctatus), which lives on the Bay of Plenty, and some islands further north.^[8] The Bay of Plenty, often abbreviated to BoP, is a region in the North Island of New Zealand situated around the body of water of the same name. ...

A third, extinct species of Sphenodon was identified in November 1885 by William Colenso, who was sent an incomplete sub-fossil specimen from a local coal mine. Colenso named the new species S. diversum.^[28] Subfossil refers to remains whose fossilization process is not complete, either for lack of time or because the condition in which they were buried were not optimal for fossilization. ...

Description

Size comparison of male S. punctatus and human.

The tuatara is considered the most unspecialised living amniote; the brain and mode of locomotion resemble that of amphibians and the heart is more primitive than any other reptile.^[20] Image File history File links Size of this preview: 621 × 599 pixelsFull resolution‎ (1,000 × 965 pixels, file size: 52 KB, MIME type: image/png) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 621 × 599 pixelsFull resolution‎ (1,000 × 965 pixels, file size: 52 KB, MIME type: image/png) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Living subgroups Class Synapsida    Class Mammalia (mammals) Class Sauropsida    Anapsida        Testudines (turtles)    Diapsida        Lepidosauria           Squamata (lizards & snakes)           Sphenodontida (tuatara)        Archosauria           Crocodilia (crocodiles)           Class Aves (birds) The amniotes are a taxon of tetrapod vertebrates that include the Synapsida (mammals) and Sauropsida (reptiles and dinosaurs, including birds). ...

Both species are sexually dimorphic, males being larger.^[11] Adult S. punctatus males measure 61 cm (24 in) in length and females 45 cm (18 in).^[11] The San Diego Zoo even cites a length of up to 80 cm (31 in).^[29] Males weigh up to 1 kg (2.2 lb), and females up to 0.5 kg (1.1 lb).^[11] Brother's Island tuatara are slightly smaller, weighing up to 660 g (1.3 lb).^[27] Female (left) and male Common Pheasant, illustrating the dramatic difference in both color and size, between the sexes Sexual dimorphism is the systematic difference in form between individuals of different sex in the same species. ...

The tuatara's greenish brown colour matches its environment, and can change over its lifetime, since tuatara shed their skin at least once per year as adults,^[26] and three or four times a year as juveniles. Tuatara sexes differ in more than size. The spiny crest on a tuatara's back, made of triangular soft folds of skin, is larger in males, and can be stiffened for display. The male abdomen is narrower than the female's.

Skull of a tuatara, showing the complete temporal arches.

Image File history File links Size of this preview: 364 × 599 pixelsFull resolution‎ (800 × 1,317 pixels, file size: 514 KB, MIME type: image/png) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 364 × 599 pixelsFull resolution‎ (800 × 1,317 pixels, file size: 514 KB, MIME type: image/png) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ...

Skull

In the course of evolution, the skull has been modified in most diapsids from the original version evident in the fossil record. However, all the original features are preserved in that of the tuatara; it has two openings (temporal fenestra) on each side of the skull, with complete arches. In addition, the upper jaw is firmly attached to the skull.^[11] This makes for a very rigid, inflexible construction. Testudines (turtle and tortoise) skulls with their single temporal fenestra are widely considered to be the most primitive among amniotes, though there is evidence they may have lost the temporal holes rather than never having had them.^[11][30][31] Families See text Turtles are reptiles of the order Testudinata, most of whose body is shielded by a special bony shell developed from their ribs. ... For other uses, see Turtle (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Tortoise (disambiguation). ...

The tip of the upper jaw is beak-like and separated from the remainder of the jaw by a notch. There is a single row of teeth in the lower jaw and a double row in the upper, with the bottom row fitting perfectly between the two upper rows when the mouth is closed.^[11] This tooth arrangement is not seen in any other reptile; although most snakes have a double row of teeth in their upper jaw, their arrangement and function is different from the tuatara's. The jaws, joined by ligament, chew with backwards and forwards movements combined with a shearing up and down action. The force of the bite is suitable for shearing chitin and bone.^[11] The tuatara's teeth are not replaced, since they are not separate structures like real teeth, but sharp projections of the jaw bone.^[32] As their teeth wear down, older tuatara have to switch to softer prey such as earthworms, larvae, and slugs, and eventually have to chew their food between smooth jaw bones.^[33] For other uses, see Snake (disambiguation). ... In anatomy, the term ligament is used to denote three different types of structures:[1] Fibrous tissue that connects bones to other bones. ... Structure of the chitin molecule, showing two of the N-Acetylglucosamine units that repeat to form long chains in beta-1,4 linkage. ... For the LPG album, see The Earthworm (album). ... A larval insect A larva (Latin; plural larvae) is a juvenile form of animal with indirect development, undergoing metamorphosis (for example, insects or amphibians). ... This article is about land slugs. ...

Sensory organs

Both eyes can focus independently, and are specialized with a "duplex retina" that contains two types of visual cells for both day and night vision, and a tapetum lucidum which reflects on to the retina to enhance vision in the dark. There is also a third eyelid on each eye, the nictitating membrane. Light from a single point of a distant object and light from a single point of a near object being brought to a focus by changing the curvature of the lens. ... Tapetum lucidum in a calf eye, with the retina hanging down. ... Many species of land animals have a nictitating membrane, which can move across the eyeball to give the sensitive eye structures additional protection in particular circumstances. ...

The tuatara has a third eye on the top of its head called the parietal eye. It has its own lens, cornea, retina with rod-like structures and degenerated nerve connection to the brain, suggesting it evolved from a real eye. The parietal eye is only visible in hatchlings, which have a translucent patch at the top centre of the skull. After four to six months it becomes covered with opaque scales and pigment.^[11] Its purpose is unknown, but it may be useful in absorbing ultraviolet rays to manufacture vitamin D,^[10] as well as to determine light/dark cycles, and help with thermoregulation.^[11] Of all extant tetrapods, the parietal eye is most pronounced in the tuatara. The parietal eye is part of the pineal complex, another part of which is the pineal gland, which in tuatara secretes melatonin at night.^[11] It has been shown that some salamanders use their pineal body to perceive polarised light, and thus determine the position of the sun, even under cloud cover, aiding navigation.^[34] A parietal eye, also known as a parietal organ or third-eye is a part of the epithalamus present in some animal species. ... Human eye cross-sectional view. ... For other uses, see Ultraviolet (disambiguation). ... Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin that contributes to the maintenance of normal levels of calcium and phosphorus in the bloodstream. ... Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries, even when temperature surrounding is very different. ... The pineal gland (also called the pineal body or epiphysis) is a small endocrine gland in the brain. ...

Together with turtles, the tuatara has the most primitive hearing organs among the amniotes. There is no eardrum and no earhole,^[32] and the middle ear cavity is filled with loose tissue, mostly adipose tissue. The stapes comes into contact with the quadrate (which is immovable) as well as the hyoid and squamosal. The hair cells are unspecialized, innervated by both afferent and efferent nerve fibres, and respond only to low frequencies. Even though the hearing organs are poorly developed and primitive with no visible external ears, they can still show a frequency response from 100-800 Hz, with peak sensitivity of 40 dB at 200 Hz.^[35] For other uses, see Turtle (disambiguation). ... The tympanic membrane, colloquially known as the eardrum, is a thin membrane that separates the external ear from the middle ear. ... The middle ear is the portion of the ear internal to the eardrum, and external to the oval window of the cochlea. ... Adipose tissue is one of the main types of connective tissue. ... The stapes or stirrup is the stirrup-shaped small bone or ossicle in the middle ear which attaches the incus to the fenestra ovalis, the oval window which is adjacent to the vestibule of the inner ear. ... The quadrate is a jaw bone in all jawed vertebrates except mammals (in whom it has become a middle-ear bone, the incus). ... The hyoid bone (Os Hyoideum; Lingual Bone) is a bone in the human neck, not articulated to any other bone; it is supported by the muscles of the neck and in turn supports the root of the tongue. ... The squamosal is a bone of the head of higher vertebrates. ... Hair cells are the sensory cells of both the auditory system and the vestibular system in all vertebrates. ... The mechanism of the reflex arc In the nervous system, afferent neurons--otherwise known as sensory or receptor neurons--carry nerve impulses from receptors or sense organs toward the central nervous system. ... In the nervous system, efferent nerves otherwise known as motor or effector neuron carry nerve impulses away from the central nervous systemto effectors - either muscles or glands. ... This article is about the SI unit of frequency. ... For other uses, see Decibel (disambiguation). ...

Spine and ribs

The tuatara spine is made up of hour-glass shaped vertebrae, concave both before and behind.^[32] This is the usual condition of fish vertebrae and some amphibians, but is unique to tuatara within the amniotes. The vertebral column seen from the side Different regions (curvatures) of the vertebral column The vertebral column (backbone or spine) is a column of vertebrae situated in the dorsal aspect of the abdomen. ... A diagram of a thoracic vertebra. ... A concave set (it has a dent). ... Extant subgroups Synapsida     Mammalia (mammals) Sauropsida    Anapsida        Testudines (turtles)    Diapsida        Lepidosauria           Squamata (lizards and snakes)           Sphenodontida (tuatara)        Archosauria           Crocodilia (crocodiles and alligators)           Aves (birds) The amniotes are a group of vertebrates, comprising the mammals, birds, and various other groups collectively referred to as reptiles. ...

The tuatara has gastralia, rib-like bones also called gastric or abdominal ribs,^[36] the presumed ancestral trait of diapsids. They are found in some lizards, where they are mostly made of cartilage, as well as crocodiles and the tuatara, and are not attached to the spine or thoracic ribs. The true ribs are small projections, with small, hooked bones, called uncinate processes, found on the rear of each rib.^[32] This feature is also present in birds. The tuatara is the only living tetrapod with well developed gastralia and uncinate processes. Crocodiles have the abdominal ribs modified into gastralia Gastralia (singular gastralium) are dermal bones today found in the ventral body wall of crocodilians and Sphenodon. ... For other uses, see Lizard (disambiguation). ... Groups See text. ...

In the early tetrapods, the gastralia and ribs with uncinate processes, together with bony elements such as bony plates in the skin (osteoderms) and clavicles (collar bone), would have formed a sort of exo-skeleton around the body, protecting the belly and helped to hold in the guts and inner organs. These anatomical details most likely evolved from structures involved in locomotion even before the vertebrates ventured onto land. The gastralia may have been involved in the breathing process in early amphibians and reptiles. The pelvis and shoulder girdles are arranged differently to those of lizards, as is the case with other parts of the internal anatomy and its scales.^[37]
Collarbone and collar bone redirect here. ...

Behaviour

Adult tuatara are terrestrial and nocturnal reptiles, though they will often bask in the sun to warm their bodies. Hatchlings hide under logs and stones, and are diurnal, likely because adults are cannibalistic. Tuatara thrive in temperatures much lower than those tolerated by most reptiles, and hibernate during winter.^[38] They can maintain normal activities at temperatures as low as 7 °C (0 °F), while temperatures over 28 °C (80 °F) are generally fatal. The optimal body temperature for the tuatara is from 16 to 21 °C (60-70 °C), the lowest of any reptile.^[39] The body temperature of tuatara is lower than that of other reptiles ranging from 5.2–11.2 °C (41-52 °F) over a day, whereas most reptiles have body temperatures around 20 °C (70 °F).^[40] The low body temperature results in a slower metabolism. A landform comprises a geomorphological unit, and is largely defined by its surface form and location in the landscape, as part of the terrain, and as such, is typically an element of topography. ... A nocturnal animal is one that sleeps during the day and is active at night - the opposite of the human (diurnal) schedule. ... A diurnal animal (dÄ«-Å­rnÉ™l) is an animal that is active during the daytime and sleeps during the night. ... This article refers to the process of hibernation in biology. ... Structure of the coenzyme adenosine triphosphate, a central intermediate in energy metabolism. ...

Burrowing seabirds such as petrels, prions and shearwaters share the tuatara's island habitat during the bird's nesting season. The tuatara use the bird's burrows for shelter when available, or dig their own. The seabirds' guano helps to maintain invertebrate populations that tuatara predominantly prey on; including beetles, crickets and spiders. Their diet also consists of frogs, lizards and bird's eggs and chicks. The eggs and young of seabirds that are seasonally available as food for tuatara may provide beneficial fatty acids.^[11] Tuatara will bite when approached, and do not let go easily.^[41] They can, however, be easily caught by lowering a tennis ball attached to a length of plastic into their burrow, and slowly retrieving the ball with the tuatara attached.^[41] A Southern Giant Petrel petrel chick Petrels are tube-nosed seabirds in the bird order Procellariiformes. ... Species Fairy Prion, Slender-billed Prion, Fulmar Prion, Broad-billed Prion, Antarctic Prion, Salvins Prion, A prion is a petrel (genus Pachyptila) found in Antarctica and nearby islands. ... Genera Procellaria Calonectris Puffinus †See also fulmar, prion, petrel Shearwaters are medium-sized long-winged seabirds. ... For other uses, see Bird (disambiguation). ... The Chincha guano islands in Peru. ... For other uses, see Beetle (disambiguation). ... This article is about the sport. ... For other uses, see Spider (disambiguation). ... Distribution of frogs (in black) Suborders Archaeobatrachia Mesobatrachia Neobatrachia - List of Anuran families The frogness babe is an amphibian in the order Anura (meaning tail-less from Greek an-, without + oura, tail), formerly referred to as Salientia (Latin saltare, to jump). ... For other uses, see Lizard (disambiguation). ... Essential fatty acids, or EFAs, are fatty acids that cannot be constructed within an organism from other components (generally all references are to humans) by any known chemical pathways; and therefore must be obtained from the diet. ...

Tuatara juvenile (Sphenodon punctatus)

Tuatara reproduce very slowly, taking ten years to reach sexual maturity. Mating occurs in midsummer; females mate and lay eggs once every four years.^[42] During courtship, a male makes his skin darker, raises his crests and parades toward the female. He slowly walks in circles around the female with stiffened legs. The female will either submit, and allow the male to mount her, or retreat to her burrow. ^[43] Males do not have a penis; they reproduce by the male lifting the tail of the female and placing his vent over hers. The sperm is then transferred into the female, much like the mating process in birds.^[44] Image File history File links Brueckenechse. ... Image File history File links Brueckenechse. ... In most birds and reptiles, an egg (Latin ovum) is the zygote, resulting from fertilization of the ovum. ... The penis (plural penises, penes) is an external male sexual organ. ... For other uses, see Sperm (disambiguation). ...

Tuatara eggs have a soft, parchment-like shell. It takes the females between one and three years to provide eggs with yolk, and up to seven months to form the shell. It then takes between 12 and 15 months from copulation to hatching. This means reproduction occurs at 2 to 5 year intervals, the slowest in any reptile.^[11] The sex of a hatchling depends on the temperature of the egg, with warmer eggs tending to produce male tuatara, and cooler eggs producing females. Eggs incubated at 21 °C (70 °F) have an equal chance of being male or female. However, at 22 °C (70 °F), 80% are likely to be males, and at 20 °C (70 °F), 80% are likely to be females; at 18 °C (60 °F) all hatchlings will be females.^[10] There is some evidence that sex determination in tuatara is determined by both genetic and environmental factors.^[45]

Tuatara probably have the slowest growth rates of any reptile,^[11] continuing to grow larger for the first 35 years of their lives.^[10] The average lifespan is about 60 years, but they can live to be over 100 years old.^[10]

Conservation

Distribution and threats

Tuatara were long confined to 32 offshore islands free of mammals.^[8] The islands are difficult to get to,^[46] and are colonised by few animal species, indicating that some animals absent from these islands may have caused tuatara to disappear from the mainland. However, kiore (Polynesian rats) had recently established on several of the islands, and tuatara were persisting, but not breeding, on these islands.^[47][48] Additionally, tuatara were much rarer on the rat-inhabited islands.^[48] Binomial name Rattus exulans (Peale, 1848) The Polynesian Rat or Pacific Rat (Rattus exulans), known to the Maori as Kiore, is the third most widespread species of rat in the world behind the Brown Rat and Black Rat. ...

Eradication of rats

Tuatara were removed from Stanley, Red Mercury and Cuvier Islands in 1990 and 1991, and maintained in captivity to allow Polynesian rats to be eradicated on those islands. All three populations bred in captivity, and after successful eradication, all individuals including the new juveniles were returned to their islands of origin. In the 1991/92 season, Little Barrier Island was found to hold only eight tuatara, which were taken into in situ captivity, where females produced 42 eggs, which were incubated at Victoria University. The resulting offspring were subsequently held in an enclosure on the island. The 2001-2011 Recovery Plan, published in 2001, states that eradication of rats from this island is pending.^[2] In-situ conservation means on-site conservation. It is the process of protecting an endangered plant or animal species in its natural habitat, either by protecting or cleaning up the habitat itself, or by defending the species from predators. ...

Pacific rats were eradicated on Middle Chain Island in 1992, Whatupuke in 1993, Lady Alice Island in 1994, and Coppermine Island in 1997. Following this program, juveniles have once again been seen on the latter three islands. In contrast, rats persist on Hen Island of the same group, and no juvenile tuatara had been seen there as of 2001. Middle Chain Island holds no tuatara, but it is considered possible for rats to swim between Middle Chain and other islands that do hold tuatara, and the rats were eradicated to prevent this.^[2]

Another rodent eradication was carried out on the Rangitoto Islands east of D’Urville Island, to prepare for the release of 432 Cook Strait tuatara juveniles in 2004, which were being raised at Victoria University as of 2001.^[2]

Introductions

Tuatara at the Karori Wildlife Sanctuary are given coloured markings on the head for identification.

Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 474 × 600 pixelsFull resolution‎ (640 × 810 pixels, file size: 518 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a crop of the image, Image:Tuatara karori. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 474 × 600 pixelsFull resolution‎ (640 × 810 pixels, file size: 518 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) This is a crop of the image, Image:Tuatara karori. ... Lower Karori Reservoir looking North-East Karori Wildlife Sanctuary is a protected natural area in Wellington, New Zealand, where the bio-diversity of 252 ha (just under a square mile) of forest is being restored. ...

Brothers Island tuatara

Sphenodon guntheri is present naturally on one small island with a population of approximately 400. In 1995, 50 juvenile and 18 adult Brothers Island tuatara were moved to Titi Island in Cook Strait, and their establishment monitored. Two years later, more than half of the animals had been re-sighted and all but one had gained weight. In 1998, 34 juveniles from captive breeding and 20 wild caught adults were similarly transferred to Matiu Island, a more publicly accessible location. The captive juveniles were from induced layings from wild females.^[2]

In late October 2007, it was announced that 50 tuatara collected as eggs from North Brother Island and hatched at Victoria University were being released onto Long Island in Cook Strait. The animals had been cared for at Wellington Zoo for the last five years and have been kept in secret in a specially built enclosure at the zoo, off display.^[49]

Northern tuatara

Sphenodon punctatus naturally occurs on 29 islands and its population is estimated to be over 60,000 individuals.^[11]

In 1996, 32 adult northern tuatara were moved from Moutoki Island to Moutohora. The carrying capacity of Moutohora is estimated at 8500 individuals, and the island could allow public viewing of wild tuatara.^[2]

A mainland release of S. punctatus occurred in 2005 in the heavily fenced and monitored Karori Wildlife Sanctuary.^[9] The second mainland release took place in October 2007, when a further 130 were transferred from Stephens Island to the Karori Sanctuary.^[50] Lower Karori Reservoir looking North-East Karori Wildlife Sanctuary is a protected natural area in Wellington, New Zealand, where the bio-diversity of 252 ha (just under a square mile) of forest is being restored. ...

Captive breeding

There are several tuatara breeding programmes within New Zealand. The Southland Museum and Art Gallery in Invercargill was the first to have a tuatara breeding programme, breeding Sphenodon punctatus. Hamilton Zoo and Wellington Zoo also breed tuatara for release into the wild. The Victoria University of Wellington maintains a research programme into the captive breeding of tuatara, and the Pukaha Mount Bruce Wildlife Centre keeps a pair and a juvenile tuatara. The WildNZ Trust also has a tuatara breeding enclosure at Ruawai. Cnr of Esk and Dee Streets, looking up Esk st, one of the main shopping streets of Invercargill. ... Hamilton Zoo is a zoological garden in Hamilton, New Zealand. ... Wellington Zoo is the zoo in Wellington, New Zealand. ... Victoria Universitys Kelburn Campus. ...

Cultural significance

Tuatara feature in a number of indigenous legends, and are held as ariki (God forms). Tuatara are regarded as the messengers of Whiro, the god of death and disaster, and Māori women are forbidden to eat them.^[51] Tuatara also indicate tapu (the borders of what is sacred and restricted),^[52] beyond which there is mana, meaning there could be serious consequences if that boundary is crossed.^[52] Māori women would sometimes tattoo images of lizards, some of which may represent tuatara, near their genitals.^[52] Today, tuatara are regarded as a taonga (special treasure).^[53] In Polynesian mythology (specifically: Maori), Whiro is a lizard-god of the dead and evil. ... This article is about the term Deity in the context of mysticism and theology. ... Taonga is the Maori word for a treasured thing, whether tangible or intangible. ...

The tuatara was featured on one side of the New Zealand 5 cent coin, which was phased out in October 2006. Tuatara was also the name of the Journal of the Biological Society of Victoria University College and subsequently Victoria University of Wellington, published from 1947 until 1993.^[54] This article concerns the Coins of the New Zealand Dollar. ... Victoria Universitys Kelburn Campus. ...

References

A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 153rd day of the year (154th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 298th day of the year (299th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 254th day of the year (255th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 152nd day of the year (153rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 153rd day of the year (154th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 41st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 153rd day of the year (154th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 153rd day of the year (154th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 144th day of the year (145th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 208th day of the year (209th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 8th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 314th day of the year (315th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 139th day of the year (140th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Massey University (Māori: ) is New Zealands largest university with approximately 40,000 students. ... March 26 is the 85th day of the year (86th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 59th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... The world-famous San Diego Zoo in Balboa Park, San Diego, California is one of the largest, most progressive zoos in the world with over 4,000 animals of more than 800 species. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 109th day of the year (110th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For the band, see 1997 (band). ... is the 312th day of the year (313th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 144th day of the year (145th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 249th day of the year (250th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 205th day of the year (206th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 254th day of the year (255th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 365th day of the year (366th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 153rd day of the year (154th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 112th day of the year (113th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Wellington Zoo is the zoo in Wellington, New Zealand. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 302nd day of the year (303rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For information on Wikipedia press releases, see Wikipedia:Press releases. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 109th day of the year (110th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Dominion Post is a metropolitan broadsheet newspaper published in Wellington, owned by the Australian Fairfax group, owners of The Age of Melbourne and The Sydney Morning Herald. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 293rd day of the year (294th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 109th day of the year (110th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 153rd day of the year (154th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 109th day of the year (110th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Bibliography

• Lutz, Dick (2005), Tuatara: A Living Fossil, Salem, Oregon: DIMI PRESS, ISBN 0-931625-43-2
• McKintyre, Mary (1997). Conservation of the Tuatara. Victoria University Press. ISBN 0-86473-303-8. 
• Newman, D. G. (1987), Tuatara. Endangered New Zealand Wildlife Series, Dunedin, New Zealand: John McIndoe, ISBN 0868680982
• Parkinson, Brian (2000). The Tuatara. Reed Children’s Books. ISBN 1-86948-831-8. 

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Sphenodon punctatus

Wikispecies has information related to:

Sphenodon

• Tuatara captive management plan and husbandry manual (PDF). Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand. Retrieved on 2007-11-26.
• Digimorph - Sphenodon punctatus (tuatara) - 3D visualisations from X-ray CT scans. Retrieved on 2006-05-08.
• ARKive - images and movies of the Brothers Island tuatara (Sphenodon guntheri). Retrieved on 2007-06-03.
• Evolution of a third eye in some animals? MadSci Network. Retrieved on 2007-08-09.
• The Lonely Eye. Retrieved on 2006-10-11.

Image File history File links Wikispecies-logo. ... Wikispecies is a wiki-based online project supported by the Wikimedia Foundation that aims to create a comprehensive free content catalogue of all species (including animalia, plantae, fungi, bacteria, archaea, and protista). ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 330th day of the year (331st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 128th day of the year (129th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 154th day of the year (155th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 221st day of the year (222nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 284th day of the year (285th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Institutions that keep tuatara