The Song of Roland (French: La Chanson de Roland) is the oldest major work of French literature. It exists in various different manuscript versions, which testify to its enormous and enduring popularity in the 12th to 14th centuries. The best and oldest of these versions is the one in the Oxford manuscript, which contains a text of some 4004 lines (the number varies slightly in different modern editions) and is usually dated to the middle of the twelfth century (between 1140 and 1170). The epic poem is the first and most outstanding example of the chanson de geste, a literary form that flourished between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries and celebrated the legendary deeds of a hero. French literature is, generally speaking, literature written in the French language, particularly by citizens of France; it may also refer to literature written by people living in France who speak other traditional non-French languages. ... (11th century - 12th century - 13th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 12th century was that century which lasted from 1101 to 1200. ... This 14th-century statue from south India depicts the gods Shiva (on the left) and Uma (on the right). ... Entrance to the Library, with the coats-of-arms of several Oxford colleges The Bodleian Library, the main research library of the University of Oxford, is one of the oldest libraries in Europe, and in England is second in size only to the British Library. ... The chansons de geste, Old French for songs of heroic deeds, are the epic poetry that appears at the dawn of French literature. ...

Early development of the tradition

The story told in the poem is based on a relatively minor historical incident, the ambush or battle of Roncevaux Pass on August 15, 778, in which the rearguard of Charlemagne's retreating Franks was attacked by Basques. In this engagement, recorded by historian and biographer Einhard (Eginhard) in his Life of Charlemagne (written around 830), the trapped soldiers were slaughtered to a man; among them was "Hruodland, Prefect of the Marches of Brittany" (Hruodlandus Brittannici limitis praefectus).^[1] | width=50%|Charlemagnes Franks | width=50%|Basques |- !colspan=2|Commanders |- |Roland (?) |unknown |- !colspan=2|Strength |- |unknown |unknown |- !colspan=2|Casualties |- |Complete destruction of the army |unknown |} |} The Roncevaux Pass (==Background== This battle was the last of Charlemagnes first campaign to capture Spain, an attempt that ended in failure. ... August 15 is the 227th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (228th in leap years), with 138 days remaining. ... Events Charlemagne fights the Moors in Spain. ... A portrait of Charlemagne by Albrecht Dürer that was painted several centuries after Charlemagnes death. ... For other uses, see Franks (disambiguation). ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Einhard as scribe Einhard (also Eginhard or Einhart) (born about 775 in the valley of the River Main, died March 14, 840, at Seligenstadt, Germany) was a Frankish historian and a dedicated servant of Charlemagne. ... Traditional coat of arms Modern flag (Gwenn-ha-du) Historical province of Brittany région of Bretagne, see Bretagne. ...

The first indication that popular legends were developing about this incident comes in an historical chronicle compiled c. 840, in which we are told that the names of the Frankish leaders caught in the ambush, including Roland, were "common knowledge" (vulgata sunt).^[2] A second indication, potentially much closer to the date of the first written version of the epic, is that (according to somewhat later historical sources) during William the Conqueror's invasion of England in 1066 a "song about Roland" was sung to the Norman troops before they joined battle at Hastings: William I ( 1027 – September 9, 1087), was King of England from 1066 to 1087. ... Norman conquests in red. ... Combatants Normans, supported by Bretons, Aquitanians, Flemings & French Anglo-Saxons Commanders William of Normandy, Odo of Bayeux Harold Godwinson† Strength 7,000-8,000 7,000-8,000 Casualties Unknown, thought to be around 2,000 killed and wounded Unknown, but significantly more than the Normans The Battle of Hastings...

Then a song of Roland was begun, so that the man’s warlike example would arouse the fighters. Calling on God for aid, they joined battle.^[3]

Taillefer, who sang very well, rode on a swift horse before the Duke singing of Charlemagne and Roland and Oliver and the knights who died at Roncevaux.^[4]

This cannot be treated as evidence that Taillefer, William's jongleur, was the "author of the Song of Roland", as used to be argued, but it is evidence that he was one of the many poets who shared in the tradition. We cannot even be sure that the "song" sung by Taillefer was the same as, or drew from, the particular "Song of Roland" that we have in the manuscripts. Some traditional relationship is, however, likely, epecially as the best manuscript is written in Anglo-Norman French and the Latinized name of its author or transcriber, called "Turoldus," is evidently of Norman origin ("Turold," a variant of Old Norse "Thorvaldr)." In its general sense, juggling can refer to all forms of artful or skillful object manipulation. ...

In view of the long period of oral tradition during which the ambush at Roncevaux was transformed into the Song of Roland, there can be no surprise that even the earliest surviving version of the poem does not represent an accurate account of history. Roland becomes, in the poem, the nephew of Charlemagne, the Basques become Saracens, and Charlemagne, rather than marching north to subdue the Saxons, returns to Spain and avenges the deaths of his knights. The Song of Roland marks a nascent French identity and sense of collective history traced back to the legendary Charlemagne. As remarked above, the dating of the earliest version is uncertain. So is its authorship. Some say that Turoldus named in the final line is the author; if so, we still know nothing about him but his name. The dialect of the manuscript is Anglo-Norman, which indicates an origin in northern France. Some critics, however, notably the influential Joseph Bédier, held that the real origin of this version of the epic lies much further south. It has been suggested that Serkland be merged into this article or section. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... The Anglo-Norman language is the name given to the variety of Norman spoken by the Anglo-Normans, the descendants of the Normans who ruled England following the conquest by William of Normandy in 1066. ... Joseph Bédier (1864–1938) was a 20th century French writer. ...

Perhaps drawing on oral traditions, medieval historians who worked in writing continued to give prominence to the battle of Roncevaux Pass. For example, according to the thirteenth century Arab historian Ibn al-Athir, Charlemagne came to Spain upon request of the "Governor of Saragossa", Sulayman al-Arabi, to aid him in a revolt against the caliph of Cordoba. Arriving at Saragossa and finding that al-Arabi had had a change of heart, Charlemagne attacked the city and took al-Arabi prisoner. At Roncevaux Pass, al-Arabi's sons collaborated with the Basques to ambush Charlemagne's troops and rescue their father. | width=50%|Charlemagnes Franks | width=50%|Basques |- !colspan=2|Commanders |- |Roland (?) |unknown |- !colspan=2|Strength |- |unknown |unknown |- !colspan=2|Casualties |- |Complete destruction of the army |unknown |} |} The Roncevaux Pass (==Background== This battle was the last of Charlemagnes first campaign to capture Spain, an attempt that ended in failure. ... Izz ad-DÄ«n Hassan Karam pour AthÄ«r (1160–1233), was a 13th century Iranian/Persian historian born in Cizre in Northern Kurdistan province. ... For alternative meanings, see Zaragoza (disambiguation). ... This article needs cleanup. ... Location Coordinates : 37° 53’N , 4°46′0″W Time Zone : CET (GMT +1) - summer: CEST (GMT +2) General information Native name Córdoba (Spanish) Spanish name Córdoba Founded 8th century BC Postal code 140xx Website http://www. ...

Synopsis

The death of Roland at the Battle of Roncevaux, from an illuminated manuscript c.1455-1460.

Charlemagne and his army have been fighting for seven years in Spain. Marsilion, or Marsile, the Saracen King of Sarragossa, or Zaragoza, enters into a parliament with his nobles. At the behest of Blancandrin, Marsile decides to fake a surrender in order to secure the Frankish withdrawal from his lands. Marsile sends envoys to negotiate the terms of surrender with Charlemagne: Blancandrin, as chief envoy, promises in bad faith that if Charlemagne returns home to Aix-la-Chapelle, Marsilion will soon follow and convert to Christianity. The Christian lords enter into a discussion on how to respond to Marsile's offer. Roland distrusts Marsilion, but Ganelon, Naimon and most of the others are in favour of taking the chance that he is sincere. Charlemagne agrees, but there is still the difficulty of finding an ambassador who will bear the message to Marsile. Charlemagne is reluctant to choose a valued knight, since Marsile murdered the last ambassadors that had been sent. Accordingly, Charlemagne rejects the offers of Roland and Turpin to carry the message and decrees that none of the Twelve Peers will be sent. Roland recommends that Ganelon be the one to undertake the embassy to Marsilion. Ganelon construes this as an insult, threatens Roland and then, while travelling in company with Blancandrin to Zaragoza, plots revenge. Image File history File links Mort_de_Roland. ... Image File history File links Mort_de_Roland. ... Location Coordinates : Time Zone : CET (GMT +1) - summer: CEST (GMT +2) General information Native name Zaragoza (Spanish) Spanish name Zaragoza Founded 24 Postal code 50001 - 50018 Website http://www. ... Bad faith (Latin: male fides) is a legal concept in which a malicious motive on the part of a party in a lawsuit undermines their case. ... Aachen, Dutch Aken, French Aix-la-Chapelle, Spanish Aquisgrán, Latin Aquisgranum, Ripuarian Oche) is a spa city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, on the border with Belgium and the Netherlands, 65 km to the west of Cologne, and the westernmost city in Germany. ... In the Matter of France, Ganelon is the knight who betrayed Charlemagnes army to the Muslims, leading to the Battle of Roncevaux Pass. ... Duke Naimon, also called Aymon, Namo, and Namus, is a character in Old French chansons de geste. ... Turpin (d. ... Roland is girt with a sword by Charlemagne; from a manuscript of a chanson de geste. ...

In Zaragoza, Ganelon tells Marsilion that Charlemagne's agreement is contingent upon two conditions. Firstly, Marsile will only be allowed to keep half of Spain, while the rest must go to Roland. Secondly, Marsile's uncle must be among the hostages offered as guarantees of good faith. After threatening to kill Ganelon, Marsile is advised by Blancandrin that the Frank is willing to betray Roland and the Twelve Peers. Marsilion offers Ganelon friendship and gifts of great wealth, and Ganelon promises to ensure that Roland and the Twelve Peers of France will be placed in the rearguard of the army rather than with the main body of Charlemagne's forces. This will enable Marsile, who has not the forces to defeat the Franks outright, to kill the twelve champions of France, without whom Ganelon says the French will be unwilling to wage war.

After Ganelon fulfills his side of the bargain, Roland, with Oliver and the other Twelve Peers, takes charge of the 20,000 strong rear-guard of the Frankish army. An army of Saracens, 100,000 strong, led by the nephew of Marsile and 11 other Saracen champions, is seen to be approaching the rear guard. Roland's friend Oliver advises him to blow his horn Olifant to summon the rest of the army, but Roland's code of honour obliges him to fight despite being outnumbered. The battle that follows is comprised of two parts. The initial onslaught of Saracens is repelled by the Franks, but only 300 Frankish knights, including Roland and most of the Twelve Peers, survive. The Saracens attack a second time, with Marsile himself leading a host of 300,000 warriors. It soon becomes clear that the Franks will lose. At the advice of Archbishop Turpin, Roland blows his horn, not in the expectation of rescue, but hoping that Charles will return to bury their bodies and revenge their martyrdom. When only Roland, Turpin and Gualter de Hum are still alive, Roland slices off the right hand of Marsile. Marsile flees from the field and is followed by those of his men that still survive. Roland and Turpin are the only warriors still standing on the field of battle, and are as such victorious. In the Matter of France, especially the French epic The Song of Roland, Olivier was the title characters closest friend, advisor, and confidant. ... Olifant is an alternate spelling of the word elephant. ...

Nevertheless, Turpin has been wounded in many places by Saracen projectiles and is bleeding to death as he administers the last rites to his fellow soldiers. Roland himself, while unharmed by any weapon, has blown his horn so hard that 'the temple of his head' is ruptured, and he is bleeding to death. After Turpin dies, Roland climbs to the top of a hill looking south into Spain. He cracks his Olifant bludgeoning a pagan to death who tries to steal his sword, then tries to break his sword on a rock: the sword does not break. Roland dies under a tree, facing south holding his sword Durendal and his Olifant. As told in the Matter of France, Durendal or Durandal (Italian: Durindana) is the sword of Charlemagnes paladin Roland (Orlando in Italian). ...

Charlemagne meanwhile has been riding back from France with all possible speed and has arrested Ganelon for his treachery. When he arrives at the battlefield in Roncevaux, he faints with grief. Charlemagne mourns and then sets out to overtake the fleeing Saracen army. Catching up to them in the fields before Sarragossa, Charlemagne's army slaughters them, and many Saracens who escape the sword drown in the waters of a nearby river. Marsile escapes into his citadel in Sarragossa. Because their army had received no aid from their Gods, the anguished inhabitants of Sarragossa deface the idols of their infernal trinity: the statues of Mahound, Tervagent, and Apollyon (Apollo) are dragged from the mosque and beaten with sticks. That night Baligant, the Emir of Babylon (i.e., Cairo and not the Babylon in Mesopotamia), arrives with reinforcements from Asia. Marsile dies passing his authority to Baligant. Charlemagne marshalls his forces into national divisions under his greatest remaining champions: Bavarians, Germans, Normans, Bretons, Flemings, and Burgundians to destroy the Muslim army led by Baligant. The Christians destroy the Muslim army, and Charlemagne defeats Baligant in personal combat. This article is being considered for deletion in accordance with Wikipedias deletion policy. ... Termagant, in European fantasy, was the fictional name given to a supposed deity worshipped by Muslims. ... Apollyon appears in the New Testament (Book of Revelation 9:7 – 11) leading the locust-like swarm of demons that will be released in the End Times: 7. ... Lycian Apollo, early Imperial Roman copy of a fourth century Greek original (Louvre Museum) In Greek and Roman mythology, Apollo (Ancient Greek , Apóllōn; or Ἀπέλλων, Apellōn), the ideal of the kouros, was the archer-god of medicine and healing, light, truth, archery and also a bringer of death... In the Chanson de Roland, Balignant is the Emir of Babylon, who tries to aid the defence of Zaragoza from Charlemagne. ... The Free State of Bavaria  (German: Freistaat Bayern), with an area of 70,553 km² (27,241 square miles) and 12. ... Norman conquests in red. ... The Bretons are a distinct celtic ethnic group located in the region of Brittany in France. ... The term Flemings (Dutch: ) is currently mostly used to refer to the ethnic group native to Flanders (the northern half of Belgium, historically part of the Southern Netherlands), which in total numbers about 6 million people in Belgium (the majority of all Belgians) . The term also designates, not only the... The Burgundians or Burgundes were an East Germanic tribe which may have emigrated from mainland Scandinavia to the island of Bornholm, whose old form in Old Norse still was Burgundarholmr (the Island of the Burgundians), and from here to mainland Europe. ...

The Christian army swarms into Sarragossa: the idols and artifacts of sorcery in the synagogues and mosques of Zaragoza are smashed, and 100,000 Muslims and Jews are baptized. Bramimond, the widow of Marsile, is captured, and Charlemagne gives orders for her to be converted, not by force, but by 'parable and sermon'. The Franks then return to Aix-la-Chapelle, where Roland's fiancée (and Oliver's sister) Aude dies of grief. Ganelon is tried for treason, but claims that his actions constituted a justified vengeance and that he did not commit treason. To settle the dispute, Ganelon's relative Pinabel fights judicial combat with Roland's friend Thierry, who wins. Ganelon is executed along with the members of his family that stood as vouchsafes of his innocence; Ganelon is drawn and quartered, and his relatives are hung by their necks. Queen Bramimond is baptized, and Charlemagne is finally satisfied. While he is sleeping, an angel comes to Charles and instructs him to provide succour to the city of Imphe, under attack from Pagans. Charles weeps and tears his white beard, crying that his life is miserable. Lesko synagogue, Poland A synagogue (Hebrew: בית כנסת ; beit knesset, house of assembly; Yiddish: שול, shul; Ladino אסנוגה esnoga) is a Jewish place of religious worship. ... The Masjid al-Haram in Mecca as it exists today A mosque is a place of worship for followers of the Islamic faith. ... Aude is a département in south-central France named after the Aude River. ... For other uses, see Treason (disambiguation). ... A judicial duel portrayed in a facsimile from the Cérémonies des Gages des Batailles, a manuscript of the fifteenth century in the National Library of Paris. ... This redirect page has been listed on Wikipedia:Redirects for deletion. ... Drawing and quartering was part of the penalty anciently ordained in England for treason. ...

The poem

The Song of Roland was, as one might say, an open source poem, and the different manuscripts differ dramatically. Hence, when we ask for a date of composition, we are asking for the date of the poem's 'core'. This is virtually impossible, since any single line that is datable could be a later alteration: the addition of fresh references to a previously well-developed poem. Since such additions were commonplace for such poems, we are left with the general estimate that the poem was written, more or less, between 1040 and 1115, and most of the alterations were performed by about 1098. Some favour an earlier dating, because it allows one to say that the poem was inspired by the Castilian campaigns of the 1030's, and that the poem went on to be a major influence in the First Crusade. Those who prefer a later dating do so on grounds of the brief references made in the poem to events of the First Crusade. The poem is written in stanzas of irregular length known as laisses. The lines are of pentameter, and the last stressed syllable of each line in a laisse has the same vowel sound as every other end-syllable in that laisse. The laisse is therefore an assonal, not a rhyming stanza. Open source refers to projects that are open to the public and which draw on other projects that are freely available to the general public. ... This article or section needs a complete rewrite for the reasons listed on the talk page. ... The First Crusade was launched in 1095 by Pope Urban II with the stated goals of aiding the Eastern Christians against the Turks or of capturing the sacred city of Jerusalem and the Holy Land from Muslims (varying by source). ... In poetry, a stanza is a unit within a larger poem. ... In poetry, a pentameter is a line of verse consisting of five metrical feet: Be what you can if thus your heart so deem, For more the man will less the foible seem. ... A syllable (Ancient Greek: ) is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. ... Note: This page contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. ... This article is about the poetic technique. ...

On a narrative level, the Song of Roland features extensive use of repetition, parallelism, and thesis-antithesis pairs. Unlike later Renaissance and romantic literature, the poem focuses on action, not interiority. The author gives no explanation for characters' behavior. Characters are stereotypes defined by a few salient traits: for example, Roland is proud and courageous while Ganelon is traitorous and cowardly. The story moves at a fast pace, occasionally slowing down and recounting the same scene up to three times but focusing on different details or taking a different perspective each time. The effect is similar to a film sequence shot at different angles so that important new details come to light with each shot.

Modern readers should bear in mind that the Song of Roland, like Shakespeare's plays, was intended to be performed aloud, not read silently. Traveling jongleurs performed (usually sections of) the Song of Roland to various audiences, perhaps interspersing spoken narration with musical interludes.

Characters

This is a list of some of the principal characters in The Song of Roland.

• Baligant, Emir of Babylon; Marsilion enlists his help against Charlemagne.
• Basan, French baron, murdered while serving as Ambassador of Marsilon.
• Bérengier, one of the twelve paladins killed by Marsilion’s troops; kills Estramarin; killed by Grandoyne.
• Besgun, chief cook of Charlemagne's army; guards Ganelon after Ganelon's treachery is discovered.
• Blancandrin, wise pagan; suggests bribing Charlemagne out of Spain with hostages and gifts, and then suggests dishonoring a promise to allow Marsilion's baptism
• Bramimund, Queen of Zaragoza; captured and converted by Charlemagne after the city falls
• Charlemagne, Holy Roman Emperor; his forces fight the Saracens in Spain.
• Ganelon, treacherous lord who encourages Marsilion to attack the French
• Geboin, guards the French dead; becomes leader of Charlemagne's 2nd column.
• Godefroy, standard bearer of Charlemagne; brother of Thierry, Charlemagne’s defender against Pinabel.
• Grandoyne, fighter on Marsilion’s side; son of the Cappadocian King Capuel; kills Gerin, Gerier, Berenger, Guy St. Antoine, and Duke Astorge; killed by Roland.
• Hamon, joint Commander of Charlemagne's Eighth Division.
• Lorant, French commander of one of the of first divisions against Baligant; killed by Baligant.
• Marsilion, Saracen king of Spain; Roland wounds him and he dies of his wound later.
• Milon, guards the French dead while Charlemagne pursues the Saracen forces.
• Ogier, a Dane who leads the 3rd column in Charlemagne's army against Baligant's forces.
• Oliver, Roland's friend; mortally wounded by Marganice. He represents wisdom.
• Othon, guards the French dead while Charlemagne pursues the Saracen forces.
• Pinabel, fights for Ganelon in the judicial combat.
• Roland, the hero of the Song; nephew of Charlemagne; leads the rear guard of the French forces; killed by Marsilion’s troops after a valiant struggle.
• Thierry, fights for Charlemagne in the judicial combat.
• Turpin, Archbishop of Rheims. Obviously, he represents the force of the Church.

In the Chanson de Roland, Balignant is the Emir of Babylon, who tries to aid the defence of Zaragoza from Charlemagne. ... In the Chanson de Roland, Bérengier is one of the twelve paladins who is killed in the sneak attack by Marsilion. ... In the Chanson de Roland, Besgun is the chief cook for Charlemagnes army. ... A portrait of Charlemagne by Albrecht Dürer that was painted several centuries after Charlemagnes death. ... The following list of Holy Roman Emperors is one of several Wikipedia lists of incumbents. ... In the Matter of France, Ganelon is the knight who betrayed Charlemagnes army to the Muslims, leading to the Battle of Roncevaux Pass. ... Godefroy (Gothofredus), a French noble family, which numbered among its members several distinguished jurists and historians. ... Cappadocia in 188 BC In ancient geography, Cappadocia (from Persian: Katpatuka meaning the land of beautiful horses, Greek: Καππαδοκία; see also List of traditional Greek place names; Turkish Kapadokya) was an extensive inland district of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). ... Milo or Milon of Croton (late 6th century BC) was the most famous of Greek athletes in Antiquity. ... H.P. Pedersen-Dans statue of Holger Danske at Kronborg castle, Denmark Ogier the Dane (Holger Danske) is a fictional Danish hero who first appears in the Old French chanson de geste. ... In the Matter of France, especially the French epic The Song of Roland, Olivier was the title characters closest friend, advisor, and confidant. ... The Judicial Duel. ... Roland pledges his fealty to Charlemagne; from a manuscript of a chanson de geste. ... This redirect page has been listed on Wikipedia:Redirects for deletion. ... Turpin (d. ... The Archdiocese of Reims was founded (as a diocese) around 250 by St. ...

Adaptations

A Latin poem, Carmen de Prodicione Guenonis, was composed around 1120, and a Latin prose version, Historia Caroli Magni (often known as "The Pseudo-Turpin") even earlier. Around 1170, a version of the French poem was translated into the Middle German Rolandslied by Konrad der Pfaffe (possible author also of the Kaiserchronik). In his translation Konrad replaces French topics with generically Christian ones. The work was translated into Middle Dutch in the 13th century it was also rendered into Occitan verse in the 14th or 15th century poem of Ronsasvals, which incorporates the later, southern aesthetic into the story. A Norse version of the Song of Roland exists as Karlamagnús saga, and a translation into the artificial literary language of Franco-Venetian is also known; such translations contributed to the awareness of the story in Italy. In 1516 Ludovico Ariosto published his epic Orlando furioso, which deals largely with characters described first in the Song of Roland. Events December 29: Assassination of Thomas Beckett, Archbishop of Canterbury, in Canterbury cathedral City of Dublin captured by the Normans According to folklore, the Welsh prince Madoc sailed to North America and founded a colony. ... Central German (in German: Mitteldeutsch) is a group of German dialects spread from the Rhineland to Thuringia, south of Low German and north of Upper German. ... ... leaf of a Kaiserchronik manuscript The Kaiserchronik (Der Keiser und der Kunige buoch, the book of emperors and kings) is a 12th century German epic poem. ... Linguistically speaking, Middle Dutch is no more than a collective name for closely related languages or dialects which were spoken and written between about 1150 and 1500 in the present-day Dutch-speaking region. ... Occitan, known also as Lenga dòc or Langue doc (Occitan: occitan, lenga dòc) is a Romance language spoken in Occitania (i. ... A North Germanic language is any of several Germanic languages spoken in Scandinavia, parts of Finland and on the islands west of Scandinavia. ... Venetian or Venetan is a Romance language spoken by over two million people, mostly in the Veneto region of Italy. ... Ludovico Ariosto (September 8, 1474 – July 6, 1533) was an Italian poet, author of the epic poem Orlando furioso (1516), Orlando Enraged. He was born at Reggio, in Emilia. ... Ruggiero Rescuing Angelica by Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres. ...

Notes

Einhard as scribe Einhard (also Eginhard or Einhart) (born about 775 in the valley of the River Main, died March 14, 840, at Seligenstadt, Germany) was a Frankish historian and a dedicated servant of Charlemagne. ... William of Malmesbury (c. ... Wace (c. ...

See also

• La Brèche de Roland
• Matter of France
• Herzog Ernst
• Alexanderlied

La Brèche de Roland is an impressive natural gap, 40 meters across and 100 meters high, in the steep cliffs of the Cirque de Gavarnie which form part of the border between France and Spain in the Pyrenees. ... The Matter of France, also known as the Carolingian cycle is a body of legendary history that springs from the Old French medieval literature of the chansons de geste. ... Herzog Ernst is a German epic from the early high Middle Ages (around 1180) and was first written down by an anonymous author from the Rhein region. ... Lamprecht, surnamed Der Pfaffe (The Priest), was a German poet of the twelfth century. ...

External links

• The Digby 23 Project at Baylor University
• The Song of Roland
• La Chanson de Roland (Old French)
• Earliest manuscript of the Chanson de Roland, readable online images of the complete original, Bodleian Library MS. Digby 23 (Pt 2) "La Chanson de Roland, in Anglo-Norman, 12th century, ? 2nd quarter".
• Old French Audio clips of a reading of The Song of Roland in Old French