NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Vedas

The Vedas (Sanskrit वेद, véda, "knowledge") are a large corpus of texts originating in Ancient India. They form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature^[1] and the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism.^[2] Veda may refer to: Veda Hille, a Canadian singer-songwriter. ... Sanskrit ( , for short ) is a classical language of India, a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism, and one of the 23 official languages of India. ... The History of India begins with the Indus Valley Civilization, which flourished in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent from 3300 to 1700 BCE. This Bronze Age civilization was followed by the Iron Age Vedic period, which witnessed the rise of major kingdoms known as the Mahajanapadas. ... Literature in Sanskrit, one of Indias two oldest languages, and the basis of several modern languages in India. ... Template:Hindu scriptures - Vedic Scriptures Hindu scripture, which is known as Shastra is predominantly written in Sanskrit. ... Hinduism is a religious tradition[1] that originated in the Indian subcontinent. ...

According to Hindu tradition, the Vedas are apauruṣeya "not of human agency"^[3], being supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called śruti ("what is heard").^[4]^[5]. However, the early Vedic texts directly refer to oral composition by human authors who compete with each other and expect remuneration from the local nobility. Vedic mantras are recited at Hindu prayers, religious functions and other auspicious occasions. In Hinduism, Apaurusheyatva (IAST: ), Sanskrit, being unauthored, is used to describe the Vedas, the main scripture in Hinduism. ... The Å›ruti (Sanskrit thing heard, sound) is the smallest interval of the tuning system of Indian classical music. ... In Tibet, many Buddhists carve mantras into rocks as a form of devotion. ...

Philosophies and sects that developed in the Indian subcontinent have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as "orthodox" (āstika). Other traditions, notably Buddhism and Jainism, though they are (like the vedanta) similarly concerned with liberation did not regard the Vedas as divine ordinances but rather human expositions of the sphere of higher spiritual knowledge, hence not sacrosanct. These groups are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-orthodox" (nāstika) schools.^[6] In addition to Buddhism and Jainism, Sikhism also does not accept the authority of the Vedas.^[7] ^[8] AstikA is a brewery making a blond pilsner with an alcohol content of 5% ABV in the cito of Haskovo, in Southern Bulgaria. ... Buddhism is a variety of teachings described as a religion[1] or way of life. ... Jain and Jaina redirect here. ... For other uses, see Vedanta (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Moksha (disambiguation). ... Nastika is a Sanskrit term meaning: It is the antonym of astika, or one who asserts. ... Sikhism (IPA: or ; Punjabi: , , IPA: ), founded on the teachings of Guru Nanak Dev and nine successive gurus in fifteenth century Northern India, is the fifth-largest religion in the world. ...

Etymology and usage

The Sanskrit word véda "knowledge, wisdom" is derived from the root vid- "to know". This is reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *u̯eid-, meaning "see" or "know".^[9] The Sanskrit language ( , for short ) is a classical language of India, a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and one of the 23 official languages of India. ... The Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the hypothetical common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, spoken by the Proto-Indo-Europeans. ...

As a noun, the word appears only in a single instance in the Rigveda, in RV 8.19.5, translated by Griffith as "ritual lore": The eighth Mandala of the Rigveda has 103 hymns. ...

However, Geldner's authoritative translation merely has the usual Rigvedic meaning of veda "knowledge" (Wissen). ^[10] The noun is from Proto-Indo-European *u̯eidos, cognate to Greek (ϝ)εἶδος "aspect", "form". Not to be confused is the homonymous 1st and 3rd person singular perfect tense véda, cognate to Greek (ϝ)οἶδα (w)oida "I know". Root cognate are Greek ἰδέα, English wit, witness, wisdom, vision (the last from the Latin video, videre), German wissen ("to know", "knowledge"), Norwegian viten (knowledge), Swedish veta ("to know"), Polish wiedza ("knowledge"), Latin video ("I see"), Czech vím ("I know") or vidím ("I see"), and Dutch weten ("to know").^[11] The Proto-Indo-European language (PIE) is the hypothetical common ancestor of the Indo-European languages, spoken by the Proto-Indo-Europeans. ... IDEA may refer to: Electronic Directory of the European Institutions IDEA League Improvement and Development Agency Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Indian Distance Education Association Integrated Data Environments Australia Intelligent Database Environment for Advanced Applications IntelliJ IDEA - a Java IDE Interactive Database for Energy-efficient Architecture International IDEA (International Institute... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... Look up Wit in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article is about witnesses in law courts. ... For the apocryphal book of the Bible, see Book of Wisdom. ... Look up vision in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Latin was the language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ... For other uses, see Video (disambiguation). ...

In its narrowest sense, the term Veda is used to refer to the Samhitas (collection of mantras, or chants) associated with the four canonical Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda) though typically the reference also includes the Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads attached to the Samhitas. Linguistically speaking and as far as content goes, the Vedic Sutras also belong here.^[12] In post-Vedic speculation, the term was further extended to refer to Itihasas (epics) and Puranas, each of which is sometimes designated as the "fifth Veda"; and in its widest interpretation, Veda can subsume "potentially all brahmanical texts, teachings and practices."^[13] In its primary meaning, as a common noun meaning "knowledge"", veda can also be used to refer to fields of study unrelated to liturgy or ritual, freely compounded e.g. in agada-veda "medical science", sasya-veda "science of agriculture" or sarpa-veda "science of snakes" (already found in the early Upanishads); durveda means "without knowledge, ignorant". In Tibet, many Buddhists carve mantras into rocks as a form of devotion. ... Sutras may refer too: Sutra, a concept regarding Hinduism Sutras (album), an album by 1960s rock musician Donovan ... Itihasa (Sanskrit: à¤‡à¤¤à¤¿à¤¹à¤¾à¤¸ - itihÄsa in IAST notation, literally meaning that which happened) is the word for History. ... Purana (Sanskrit: ), meaning belonging to ancient or olden times, is the name of an ancient Indian genre (or a group of related genres) of Hindu or Jain literature (as distinct from oral tradition). ...

Dating

The Vedas are arguably the oldest sacred texts that are still used. Most Indologists agree that an oral tradition existed long before a literary tradition gradually sets in from about the 2nd century BCE.^[14] Due to the ephemeral nature of the manuscript material (birch bark or palm leaves), surviving manuscripts rarely surpass an age of a few hundred years. The oldest surviving manuscripts of the Rigveda are dated to the 11th century CE.^{[citation needed]}. The Benares Sanskrit University has a manuscript of the mid-14th century. Map of early Iron Age Vedic India after Witzel (1989). ... The History of literature begins with the history of writing, in Bronze Age Mesopotamia, although the oldest literary texts that have come down to us date to a full millennium after the invention of writing, to the late 3rd millennium BC. The earliest literary author known by name is Enheduanna... Indologist is a derivative of the word indology, which refers to study of India, particulary ancient India. ... Oral tradition or oral culture is a way of transmitting history, literature or law from one generation to the next in a civilization without a writing system. ...

The Vedic period lasts for at least a millennium, spanning the Late Bronze Age and the Iron Age. Gavin Flood^[15] sums up mainstream estimates, according to which the Rigveda was compiled from as early as 1500 BCE over a period of several centuries. The Vedic period reaches its peak only after the composition of the mantra texts, with the establishment of the various shakhas all over Northern India which annotated the mantra samhitas with Brahmana discussions of their meaning, and reaches its end in the age of Buddha and Panini and the rise of the Mahajanapadas (archaeologically, Northern Black Polished Ware). Michael Witzel gives a time span of c. 1500 BCE to c. 500-400 BCE. Witzel makes special reference to the Mitanni material of ca. 1400 BCE as the only epigraphic record of Indo-Aryan that may date to the Rigvedic period. However Mitanni Indo-Aryan is linguistically slightly older than the language of the Rigveda, and the comparison thus still does not allow for an absolute dating of any Vedic text. He gives 150 BCE (Patanjali) as a terminus ante quem for all Vedic Sanskrit literature, and 1200 BCE (the early Iron Age) as terminus post quem for the Atharvaveda.^[16] The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H) culture, also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition. ... Shakha (IAST ), literally branch or limb, is the Sanskrit term for a recension or version of Vedic texts according to a particular school. ... The Vedas are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures form part of the core of the Brahminical and Vedic traditions within Hinduism and are the inspirational, metaphysical and mythological foundation for later Vedanta, Yoga, Tantra and even Bhakti forms of Hinduism. ... The Brahmana (Sanskrit à¤¬à¥à¤°à¤¾à¤¹à¥à¤®à¤£) are part of the Hindu Shruti; They are composed in Vedic Sanskrit, and the period of their composition is sometimes referred to as the Brahmanic period or age (approximately between 900 BC and 500 BC). ... Media:Example. ... Indian postage stamp depicting (2004), with the implication that he used (IPA ) was an ancient Gandharan grammarian (approximately 5th century BC, but estimates range from the 7th to the 3rd centuries) who is most famous for formulating the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology known as the . ... This does not cite any references or sources. ... The Northern Black Polished Ware culture (NBPW) of the Indian subcontinent (ca. ... Some theonyms, proper names and other terminology of the Mitanni exhibit an Indo-Aryan superstrate, suggesting that an Indo-Aryan elite imposed itself over the Hurrian population in the course of the Indo-Aryan expansion. ... Patañjali, is the compiler of the Yoga Sutra, a major work containing aphorisms on the practical and philosophical wisdom regarding practice of Raja yoga. ... The Iron Age in the Indian subcontinent succeeds the Late Harappan (Cemetery H) culture, also known as the last phase of the Indus Valley Tradition. ...

Categories of Vedic texts

Vedic texts are traditionally categorized into four classes: the Saṃhitās (mantras), Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads.^[17]^[18] Also classified as "Vedic" is certain Sutra literature, i.e. the Shrautasutras and the Grhyasutras. The Brahmana (Sanskrit à¤¬à¥à¤°à¤¾à¤¹à¥à¤®à¤£) are part of the Hindu Shruti; They are composed in Vedic Sanskrit, and the period of their composition is sometimes referred to as the Brahmanic period or age (approximately between 900 BC and 500 BC). ... The Aranyakas (Sanskrit à¤†à¤°à¤£à¥à¤¯à¤• ) are part of the Hindu Å›ruti; these religious scriptures are written in early Classical Sanskrit, and form part of either the Brahmanas or Upanishads. ... The Upanishads (Devanagari: à¤‰à¤ªà¤¿à¤¨à¤·à¤¦à¥, IAST: ) are regarded as part of the Vedas and as such form part of the Hindu scriptures. ... SÅ«tra (sex) (Sanskrit) or Sutta (PÄli) literally means a rope or thread that holds things together, and more metaphorically refers to an aphorism (or line, rule, formula), or a collection of such aphorisms in the form of a manual. ... Sutra (सूत्र) in Sanskrit is derived from the verb √siv, meaning to sew. ... Sutra (सूत्र) in Sanskrit is derived from the verb √siv, meaning to sew. ...

This group of texts is called shruti (Sanskrit: śruti; "the heard"). Since post-Vedic times it has been considered to be revealed wisdom, as distinct from other texts, collectively known as smriti (Sanskrit: smṛti; "the remembered"), that is texts that are considered to be of human origin. This indigenous system of categorization was adopted by Max Müller and, while it is subject to some debate, it is still widely used. As Axel Michaels explains: In Tibet, many Buddhists carve mantras into rocks as a form of devotion. ... Rig veda is the oldest text in the world. ... The Samaveda (Sanskrit: à¤¸à¤¾à¤®à¤µà¥‡à¤¦, sÄmaveda, a tatpurusha compound of ritual chant + knowledge ), is third in the usual order of enumeration of the four Vedas, the ancient core Hindu scriptures. ... The Yajurveda (Sanskrit , a tatpurusha compound of sacrifice + knowledge) is one of the four Hindu Vedas. ... The Atharvaveda (Sanskrit: à¤…à¤¥à¤°à¥à¤µà¤µà¥‡à¤¦, , a tatpurusha compound of , a type of priest, and meaning knowledge) is a sacred text of Hinduism, and one of the four Vedas, often called the fourth Veda. According to tradition, the Atharvaveda was mainly composed by two groups of rishis known as the Bhrigus and the... Maurice Bloomfield February 23, 1855 - June 12, 1928, American Sanskrit scholar, was born on the 23rd of February 1855, in Bielitz, in what was at that time Austrian Silesia (today it is in Poland). ... A pada ( foot) in Sanskrit poetic meter (chandas) is a quarter of a full verse (the foot of a quadruped being one out of four), e. ... In verse, a foot is the basic unit of meter used to describe rhythm. ... The Brahmanas (Brahmin Books) are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures focus on sacrifice -- particularly that of horses and soma. ... The Aranyakas (Forest Books, Forest Treatises) are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures are sometimes argued to be part of either the Brahmanas or Upanishads. ... The Upanishads (उपनिषद्, Upanişad) are part of the Hindu Shruti scriptures which primarily discuss meditation and philosophy and are seen as religious instructions by most schools of Hinduism. ... For other uses, see Vedanta (disambiguation). ... Max MÃ¼ller as a young man Friedrich Max MÃ¼ller (December 6, 1823 â€“ October 28, 1900), more commonly known as Max MÃ¼ller, was a German philologist and Orientalist, one of the founders of Indian studies, who virtually created the discipline of comparative religion. ...

The Shrauta Sutras, regarded as belonging to the smriti, are late Vedic in language and content, thus forming part of the Vedic Sanskrit corpus.^[21]^[22] The composition of the Shrauta and Grhya Sutras (ca. 6th century BC) marks the end of the Vedic period , and at the same time the beginning of the flourishing of the "circum-Vedic" scholarship of Vedanga, introducing the early flowering of classical Sanskrit literature in the Maurya period. Kalpa is one of the six disciplines of Vedanga, treating ritual. ... The Vedanga (IAST , member of the Veda) are six auxiliary disciplines for the understanding and tradition of the Vedas. ... Literature in Sanskrit, one of Indias two oldest languages, and the basis of several modern languages in India. ... Chandragupta Maurya (ruled 322–298 BC), known to the Greeks as Sandracottus, was the first emperor of the Mauryan empire. ...

While production of Brahmanas and Aranyakas ceases with the end of the Vedic period, there is a large number of Upanishads composed after the end of the Vedic period. While most of the ten mukhya Upanishads can be considered to date to the Vedic or Mahajanapada period, most of the 108 Upanishads of the full Muktika canon date only to the Common Era. The Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads often interpret the polytheistic and ritualistic Samhitas in philosophical and metaphorical ways to explore abstract concepts such as the Absolute (Brahman), and the soul or the self (Atman), introducing Vedanta philosophy, the basis of later Hinduism. The Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads is headed by 10 Mukhya Upanishads. ... The MuktikÄ (deliverance) Upanishad is the final Upanishad of the Advaita canon of 108 texts, and it is itself the source of this canon. ... The Brahmanas (Brahmin Books) are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures focus on sacrifice -- particularly that of horses and soma. ... The Aranyakas (Forest Books, Forest Treatises) are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures are sometimes argued to be part of either the Brahmanas or Upanishads. ... The Upanishads (उपनिषद्, Upanişad) are part of the Hindu Shruti scriptures which primarily discuss meditation and philosophy and are seen as religious instructions by most schools of Hinduism. ... The Vedas are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures form part of the core of the Brahminical and Vedic traditions within Hinduism and are the inspirational, metaphysical and mythological foundation for later Vedanta, Yoga, Tantra and even Bhakti forms of Hinduism. ... Brahman (nominative ) is a concept of Hinduism. ... The Atman or Atma (IAST: Ä€tmÄ, sanskrit: à¤†à¤¤à¥à¤®â€ ) is a philosophical term used within Hinduism and Vedanta to identify the soul. ... For other uses, see Vedanta (disambiguation). ... Hinduism is a religious tradition[1] that originated in the Indian subcontinent. ...

Vedic schools or recensions

Study of the extensive body of Vedic texts has been organized into a number of different schools or branches (Sanskrit śākhā, literally "branch" or "limb") each of which specialized in learning certain texts.^[23] Multiple recensions are known for each of the Vedas, and each Vedic text may have a number of schools associated with it. Elaborate methods for preserving the text were based on memorizing by heart instead of writing. Specific techniques for parsing and reciting the texts were used to assist in the memorization process. (See also: patha) Shakha (IAST ), literally branch or limb, is the Sanskrit term for a recension or version of Vedic texts according to a particular school. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Vedic chant. ...

Exegetical literature developed in the Vedic schools but comparatively few early medieval commentaries have survived. Sayana, from the 14th century, is known for his elaborate commentaries on the Vedic texts. It is frequently alleged that all classes (varna) in early Vedic society were allowed to study the Vedas and that there were Vedic sages that authored the Vedas (Rishis) that were women.^{[citation needed]} However, the dharmashastras, from the Sutra age, state that women and Shudras were neither required nor allowed to study the Veda.^{[citation needed]} These dharmashastras regard the study of the Vedas a religious duty of the three upper varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas).^{[citation needed]} Sayana (सायण) was the great 14th century commentator on the Vedas. ... The Dharmashastra is a volume of Hindu legal texts, covering moral, ethical and social laws. ... SÅ«tra (sex) (Sanskrit) or Sutta (PÄli) literally means a rope or thread that holds things together, and more metaphorically refers to an aphorism (or line, rule, formula), or a collection of such aphorisms in the form of a manual. ... Shudra (IAST: ) is the fourth Varna in the traditional four-section division in historic Hindu society. ... The Dharmashastra is a volume of Hindu legal texts, covering moral, ethical and social laws. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... For the Bollywood film of the same name see Kshatriya Kshatriya (Hindi: , from Sanskrit: , ) is one of the four varnas, or castes, in Hinduism. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

The Four Vedas

The canonical division of the Vedas is fourfold (turīya) viz.,^[24] Download high resolution version (1161x1125, 419 KB)Rigveda MS in Sanskrit on paper, India, early 19th c. ... Download high resolution version (1161x1125, 419 KB)Rigveda MS in Sanskrit on paper, India, early 19th c. ... A pada ( foot) in Sanskrit poetic meter (chandas) is a quarter of a full verse (the foot of a quadruped being one out of four), e. ... Rigveda manuscript in Devanagari (early 19th century) DevanÄgarÄ« (à¤¦à¥‡à¤µà¤¨à¤¾à¤—à¤°à¥€ â€” in English pronounced ) (ISCII â€“ IS13194:1991) [1] is an abugida alphabet used to write several Indian languages, including Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Kashmiri, Sindhi, Bihari, Bhili, Konkani, Bhojpuri and Nepali from Nepal. ...

Of these, the first three were the principal original division, also called trayī, "the triple Vidyā", that is, "the triple sacred science" of reciting hymns (RV), performing sacrifices (YV), and chanting (SV).^[25]^[26] This triplicity is so introduced in the Brahmanas (ShB, ABr and others), but the Rigveda is the older work of the three from which the other two borrow, next to their own independent Yajus, sorcery and speculative mantras. The Rig Veda à¤‹à¤—à¥à¤µà¥‡à¤¦ (Sanskrit á¹›gveda from á¹›c praise + veda knowledge) is a collection of hymns(each hymn is called a Rucha.) counted among the four Hindu religious scriptures known as the Vedas, and contains the oldest texts preserved in any Indo-Iranian language. ... The Yajur Veda (Sanskrit from sacrifice + veda knowledge) à¤¯à¤œà¥à¤°à¥à¤µà¥‡à¤¦à¤ƒ is one of the four Hindu Vedas; it contains religious texts focussing on liturgy and ritual. ... The Taittiriya Shakha is a notable shakha (rescension) of the Black Yajurveda, named after Tittiri, a pupil of Yaska. ... Map of early Iron Age Vedic India after Witzel (1989). ... The Samaveda (Sanskrit: à¤¸à¤¾à¤®à¤µà¥‡à¤¦, sÄmaveda, a tatpurusha compound ot ritual chant + knowledge ), is third in the usual order of enumeration of the four Vedas, the ancient core Hindu scriptures. ... The Atharva Veda is a sacred text of Hinduism, part of the four books of the Vedas. ... The Brahmana (Sanskrit à¤¬à¥à¤°à¤¾à¤¹à¥à¤®à¤£) are part of the Hindu Shruti; They are composed in Vedic Sanskrit, and the period of their composition is sometimes referred to as the Brahmanic period or age (approximately between 900 BC and 500 BC). ... Shatapatha Brahmana (Brahmana of one-hundred paths) is one of the prose texts describing the Vedic ritual. ... The Aitareya Brahmana is the Brahmana associated with the Rigveda in the Shakala school. ...

Thus, the Mantras are properly of three forms: 1. Ric, which are verses of praise in metre, and intended for loud recitation; 2. Yajus, which are in prose, and intended for recitation in lower voice at sacrifices; 3. Sāman, which are in metre, and intended for singing at the Soma ceremonies. This article is about the Vedic plant and ritual. ...

The Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda are independent collections of mantras and hymns intended as manuals for the Adhvaryu, Udgatr and Brahman priests respectively. The Vedic priesthood is the collective term for the priests of the Vedic religion. ... Priests of the Vedic religion were officiants of the yajna service. ... Brahman (nominative ) is a concept of Hinduism. ...

The Atharvaveda is the fourth Veda. Its status has occasionally been ambiguous, probably due to its use in sorcery and healing. However, it contains very old materials in early Vedic language. Manusmrti, which often speaks of the three Vedas, calling them trayam-brahma-sanātanam, "the triple eternal Veda". The Atharvaveda like the Rigveda, is a collection of original incantations, and other materials borrowing relatively little from the Rigveda. It has no direct relation to the solemn Shrauta sacrifices, except for the fact that the mostly silent Brahmán priest observes the procedures and uses Atharvaveda mantras to 'heal' it when mistakes have been made. Its recitation also produces long life, cures diseases, or effects the ruin of enemies. The Manusmriti (Sanskrit à¤®à¤¨à¥à¤¸à¥à¤®à¥ƒà¤¤à¤¿), translated Laws of Manu or Institutions of Manu, is regarded as a foundational work of Hindu law and ancient Indian society, compiled and written quite late, c. ... Shruti (what is heard) is a canon of Hindu scriptures. ...

Each of the four Vedas consists of the metrical Mantra or Samhita and the prose Brahmana part, giving discussions and directions for the detail of the ceremonies at which the Mantras were to be used and explanations of the legends connected with the Mantras and rituals. Both these portions are termed shruti (which tradition says to have been heard but not composed or written down by men). Each of the four Vedas seems to have passed to numerous Shakhas or schools, giving rise to various recensions of the text. They each have an Index or Anukramani, the principal work of this kind being the general Index or Sarvānukramaṇī. In Tibet, many Buddhists carve mantras into rocks as a form of devotion. ... The Brahmana (Sanskrit à¤¬à¥à¤°à¤¾à¤¹à¥à¤®à¤£) are part of the Hindu Shruti; They are composed in Vedic Sanskrit, and the period of their composition is sometimes referred to as the Brahmanic period or age (approximately between 900 BC and 500 BC). ... Shruti (Sanskrit à¤¶à¥à¤°à¥à¤¤à¤¿, what is heard) is a canon of Hindu scriptures. ... Shakha (IAST ), literally branch or limb, is the Sanskrit term for a recension or version of Vedic texts according to a particular school. ... An (also ) is an index of Vedic hymns, recording poetic meter, content, and traditions of authorship. ...

The Rig-Veda

The Rig-Veda Samhita is the oldest significant existent Indian text.^[27] It is a collection of 1,028 Vedic Sanskrit hymns and 10,600 verses in all, organized into ten books (Sanskrit: mandalas).^[28] The hymns are dedicated to Rigvedic deities.^[29] Rig veda is the oldest text in the world. ... Rig veda is the oldest text in the world. ... Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, which are the earliest sacred texts of India,. The Vedas were first passed down orally and therefore have no known date. ... See also hymn - a program to decrypt iTunes music files. ... There are 1028 hymns in the Rigveda, most of them dedicated to specific deities. ...

The books were composed by poets from different priestly groups over a period of some 500 years, which Avari dates as 1400 BCE to 900 BCE, if not earlier^[30] According to Max Müller, based on internal evidence (philological and linguistic), the Rigveda was composed roughly between 1700–1100 BCE (the early Vedic period) in the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu) region of the Indian subcontinent.^[31] Michael Witzel believes that the Rig Veda must have been composed more or less in the period 1450-1350 BCE, in the Greater Panjab, before the onset of the Iron Age.^[32] Map of early Iron Age Vedic India after Witzel (1989). ... This article is about the geographical region. ... The Sapta Sindhu are the seven sacred rivers in Hindu mythology. ... Map of South Asia (see note) This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia. ...

There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities between the Rigveda and the early Iranian Avesta, deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times, often associated with the Andronovo culture; the earliest horse-drawn chariots were found at Andronovo sites in the Sintashta-Petrovka cultural area near the Ural mountains and date to ca. 2000 BCE.^[33] See Avesta Municipality for the Swedish town Yasna 28. ... The term Indo-Iranian includes all speakers of Indo-Iranian languages, i. ... Map of the approximate maximal extent of the Andronovo culture. ... The Andronovo culture in the context of late 3rd millennium Indo-European expansion The Andronovo culture, is a name given by archaeologists to a group of Bronze Age communities who lived in western Siberia, Russia and parts of Kazakhstan during the second and first millennium BC. The culture is named... Map of the Ural Mountains The Ural Mountains (Russian: , Uralskiye gory) (also known as the Urals, the Riphean Mountains in Greco-Roman antiquity, and known as the Stone Belt) are a mountain range that runs roughly north and south through western Russia. ...

The Yajur-Veda

The Yajur-Veda ("Veda of sacrificial formulas") consists of archaic prose mantras and also in part of verses borrowed and adapted from the Rig-Veda. Its purpose was practical, in that each mantra must accompany an action in sacrifice but, unlike the Sama-Veda, it was compiled to apply to all sacrificial rites, not merely the Soma offering. There are two major recensions of this Veda known as the "Black" and "White" Yajur-Veda. The origin and meaning of these designations are not very clear. The White Yajur-Veda contains only the verses and formulas (yajus) necessary for the sacrifice, while their discussion exist in a separate work, the Shatapatha Brahmana. It differs widely from the Black Yajurveda, which incorporates such discussions in the work itself, often immediately following the verses. Of the Black Yajurveda four major recensions survive (Maitrayani, Katha, Kapisthala-Katha, Taittiriya), all showing by and large the same arrangement, but differing in many other respects, notably in the individual discussion of the rituals but also in matters of phonology, accent, grammatical forms, syntax and choice of words. The Yajurveda (Sanskrit , a tatpurusha compound of sacrifice + knowledge) is one of the four Hindu Vedas. ... The Yajurveda (Sanskrit , a tatpurusha compound of sacrifice + knowledge) is one of the four Hindu Vedas. ... This article is about the Vedic plant and ritual. ... Recension is the name given to the critical revision of the text of an author, or the revised text itself. ...

The Sama-Veda

The Sama-Veda (Sanskrit sāmaveda ) is the "Veda of melodies" or "Knowledge of melodies". The name of this Veda is from the Sanskrit word sāman which means a melody applied to metrical hymn or song of praise.^[34] It consists of 1549 stanzas, taken entirely (except 78) from the Rig-Veda.^[35] Like the Rigvedic stanzas in the Yajurveda, the Samans have been changed and adapted for use in singing. Some of the Rig-Veda verses are repeated more than once. Including repetitions, there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the Sama-Veda recension translated by Griffith.^[36] Two major recensions remain today, the Kauthuma/Ranayaniya and the Jaiminiya. The Samaveda (Sanskrit: à¤¸à¤¾à¤®à¤µà¥‡à¤¦, sÄmaveda, a tatpurusha compound of ritual chant + knowledge ), is third in the usual order of enumeration of the four Vedas, the ancient core Hindu scriptures. ... The Samaveda (Sanskrit: à¤¸à¤¾à¤®à¤µà¥‡à¤¦, sÄmaveda, a tatpurusha compound of ritual chant + knowledge ), is third in the usual order of enumeration of the four Vedas, the ancient core Hindu scriptures. ...

Its purpose was liturgical and practical, to serve as a songbook for the "singer" priests who took part in the liturgy. A priest who sings hymns from the Sama-Veda during a ritual is called an udgātṛ, a word derived from the Sanskrit root ud-gai ("to sing" or "to chant").^[37] A similar word in English might be "cantor". The styles of chanting are important to the liturgical use of the verses. The hymns were to be sung according to certain fixed melodies; hence the name of the collection.

The Atharva-Veda

The Artharva-Veda is the "Knowledge of the [atharvans] (and Angirasa)". The Artharva-Veda or Atharvangirasa is the text 'belonging to the Atharvan and Angirasa' poets. Apte defined an atharvan as a priest who worshipped fire and Soma.^[38] However, the etymology of Atharvan is unclear, but according to Mayrhofer it is related to Avesta athravan (āθrauuan); he denies any connection with fire priests.^[39] Atharvan was an ancient term for a certain Rishi even in the Rigveda. (The older secondary literature took them as priests who worshipped fire). The Atharvaveda (Sanskrit: à¤…à¤¥à¤°à¥à¤µà¤µà¥‡à¤¦, , a tatpurusha compound of , a type of priest, and meaning knowledge) is a sacred text of Hinduism, and one of the four Vedas, often called the fourth Veda. According to tradition, the Atharvaveda was mainly composed by two groups of rishis known as the Bhrigus and the... The Atharvaveda (Sanskrit: à¤…à¤¥à¤°à¥à¤µà¤µà¥‡à¤¦, , a tatpurusha compound of , a type of priest, and meaning knowledge) is a sacred text of Hinduism, and one of the four Vedas, often called the fourth Veda. According to tradition, the Atharvaveda was mainly composed by two groups of rishis known as the Bhrigus and the... The Atharvaveda (Sanskrit: à¤…à¤¥à¤°à¥à¤µà¤µà¥‡à¤¦, , a tatpurusha compound of , a type of priest, and meaning knowledge) is a sacred text of Hinduism, and one of the four Vedas, often called the fourth Veda. According to tradition, the Atharvaveda was mainly composed by two groups of rishis known as the Bhrigus and the... A rishi (Sanskrit à¤‹à¤·à¤¿: ) is a Hindu saint or sage and in its most strict canonical sense denotes a Vedic sage to whom Vedic hymns were originally revealed. // A Rishi is a person who can hold and transmit knowledge in the form of Light. ...

The Atharva-Veda Saṃhitā has 760 hymns, and about 160 of the hymns are in common with the Rig-Veda.^[40] Most of the verses are metrical, but some sections are in prose.^[41]

It was compiled around 900 BCE, although some of its material may go back to the time of the Rig Veda,^[42] and some parts of the Atharva-Veda are older than the Rig-Veda^[43] though not in linguistic form.

The Atharvana-Veda is preserved in two recensions, the Paippalāda and Śaunaka.^[44] According to Apte it had nine schools (shakhas).^[45] The Paippalada text, which exists in a Kashmir and an Orissa version, is longer than the Saunaka one; it is only partially printed in its two versions and remains largely untranslated. Shakha (IAST ), literally branch or limb, is the Sanskrit term for a recension or version of Vedic texts according to a particular school. ...

Unlike the other three Vedas, the Atharvana-Veda has less connection with sacrifice.^[46]^[47] Its first part consists chiefly of spells and incantations, concerned with protection against demons and disaster, spells for the healing of diseases, for long life and for various desires or aims in life.^[48]^[49]

The second part of the text contains speculative and philosophical hymns. R. C. Zaehner notes that:

In its third section, the Atharvaveda contains Mantras used in marriage and death rituals, as well as those for kingship, female rivals and the Vratya (in Brahmana style prose).

Gavin Flood discusses the relatively late acceptance of the Atharva-Veda as follows:

Brahmanas

The mystical notions surrounding the concept of "Veda" that would flower in Vedantic philosophy have their roots already in Brahmana literature, for example in the Shatapatha Brahmana. The Vedas are identified with Brahman, the universal principle (ŚBM 10.1.1.8, 10.2.4.6). Vāc "speech" is called the "mother of the Vedas" (ŚBM 6.5.3.4, 10.5.5.1). The knowledge of the Vedas is endless, compared to them, human knowledge is like mere handfuls of dirt (TB 3.10.11.3-5). The universe itself was originally encapsulated in the three Vedas (ŚBM 10.4.2.22 has Prajapati reflecting that "truly, all beings are in the triple Veda"). The Brahmanas (Brahmin Books) are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures focus on sacrifice -- particularly that of horses and soma. ... For other uses, see Vedanta (disambiguation). ... The Brahmana (Sanskrit à¤¬à¥à¤°à¤¾à¤¹à¥à¤®à¤£) are part of the Hindu Shruti; They are composed in Vedic Sanskrit, and the period of their composition is sometimes referred to as the Brahmanic period or age (approximately between 900 BC and 500 BC). ... Shatapatha Brahmana (Brahmana of one-hundred paths) is one of the prose texts describing the Vedic ritual. ... Brahman (nominative ) is a concept of Hinduism. ... VÄk or VÄc (stem , nominative ) is the Sanskrit word for speech, voice, talk, or language. Personified, VÄk is a goddess, most frequently she is identified with Bharati or Sarasvati, the goddess of speech. ... The Taittiriya Brahmana (TB) is the Brahmana associated with the Taittiriya shakha of the Black Yajurveda. ... In Hinduism, Prajapati is Lord of Creatures, thought to be depicted on ancient Harappan seals, sitting in yogic posture, with an erection and what appear to be bison horns. ...

Vedanta

While contemporary traditions continued to maintain Vedic ritualism (Shrauta, Mimamsa), Vedanta renounced all ritualism and radically re-interpreted the notion of "Veda" in purely philosophical terms. The association of the three Vedas with the bhūr bhuvaḥ svaḥ mantra is found in the Aitareya Aranyaka: "Bhūḥ is the Rigveda, bhuvaḥ is the Yajurveda, svaḥ is the Samaveda" (1.3.2). The Upanishads reduce the "essence of the Vedas" further, to the syllable Aum (ॐ). Thus, the Katha Upanishad has: For other uses, see Vedanta (disambiguation). ... The Upanishads (उपनिषद्, Upanişad) are part of the Hindu Shruti scriptures which primarily discuss meditation and philosophy and are seen as religious instructions by most schools of Hinduism. ... The Aranyakas (Forest Books, Forest Treatises) are part of the Hindu Shruti; these religious scriptures are sometimes argued to be part of either the Brahmanas or Upanishads. ... Shruti (what is heard) is a canon of Hindu scriptures. ... The main objective of the Purva (earlier) Mimamsa school was to establish the authority of the Vedas. ... For other uses, see Vedanta (disambiguation). ... The Aranyakas (Sanskrit à¤†à¤°à¤£à¥à¤¯à¤• ) are part of the Hindu Å›ruti; these religious scriptures are written in early Classical Sanskrit, and form part of either the Brahmanas or Upanishads. ... â€œOmâ€ redirects here. ... The Kaá¹ha Upanishad is one of the older, primary Upanishads commented upon by Shankara. ...

The Vedas in post-Vedic literature

Vedanga

Six technical subjects related to the Vedas are traditionally known as vedāṅga "limbs of the Veda". V. S. Apte defines this group of works as: The Vedanga (IAST , member of the Veda) are six auxiliary disciplines for the understanding and tradition of the Vedas. ...

These subjects are treated in Sutra literature dating from the end of the Vedic period to Mauryan times, seeing the transition from late Vedic Sanskrit to Classical Sanskrit. SÅ«tra (sex) (Sanskrit) or Sutta (PÄli) literally means a rope or thread that holds things together, and more metaphorically refers to an aphorism (or line, rule, formula), or a collection of such aphorisms in the form of a manual. ... The Mauryan empire (321 to 185 BCE), at its largest extent around 230 BCE. The Mauryan empire was Indias first great unified empire. ... Vedic Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas, which are the earliest sacred texts of India,. The Vedas were first passed down orally and therefore have no known date. ... ...

For the Yiddish slang word, see Shiksa. ... The verses of the Vedas have a variety of different meters. ... The Sanskrit grammatical tradition of , is one of the six Vedanga disciplines. ... Nirukta is Vedic glossary of difficult words. ... Jyotisha (, in Hindi and English usage Jyotish; sometimes called Hindu astrology, Indian astrology, and/or Vedic astrology) is the Hindu system of astrology, one of the six disciplines of Vedanga, and regarded as one of the oldest schools of ancient astrology to have had an independent origin, affecting all other... Kalpa is one of the six disciplines of Vedanga, treating ritual. ...

Puranas

A traditional view given in the Vishnu Purana (likely dating to the Gupta period^[53]) attributes the current arrangement of four Vedas to the mythical sage Vedavyasa.^[54]. Puranic tradition also postulates a single original Veda that, in varying accounts, was divided into three or four parts. According to the Vishnu Purana (3.2.18, 3.3.4 etc) the original Veda was divided into four parts, and further fragmented into numerous shakhas, by Vishnu in the form of Vyasa, in the Dvapara Yuga; the Vayu Purana (section 60) recounts a similar division by Vyasa, at the urging of Brahma. The Bhagavata Purana (12.6.37) traces the origin of the primeval Veda to the syllable aum, and says that it was divided into four at the start of Dvapara Yuga, because men had declined in age, virtue and understanding. In a differing account Bhagavata Purana (9.14.43) attributes the division of the primeval veda (aum) into three parts to the monarch Pururavas at the beginning of Treta Yuga. The Mahabharata (santiparva 13,088) also mentions the division of the Veda into three in Treta Yuga.^[55] The Vishnu Purana is one of the oldest of the Puranas (dating to maybe the 5th century), containing some 23,000 shlokas, presented as a dialogue between Parasara with his disciple Maitreya. ... Silver coin of the Gupta King Kumara Gupta I (414-455). ... Veda Vyasa(Contemporary painting) VyÄsa (DevanÄgarÄ«: à¤µà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¸) is a central and much revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions. ... The Vishnu Purana is one of the oldest of the Puranas (dating to maybe the 5th century), containing some 23,000 shlokas, presented as a dialogue between Parasara with his disciple Maitreya. ... Vishnu (IAST , Devanagari ), (honorific: Sri Vishnu) also known as Narayana is the Supreme Being (i. ... Veda Vyasa(Contemporary painting) VyÄsa (DevanÄgarÄ«: à¤µà¥à¤¯à¤¾à¤¸) is a central and much revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions. ... Dvapara Yuga is the third out of four yugas, or ages, in the religion of Hinduism. ... The Vayu Purana is a Shaiva Purana, dedicated to Vayu (the wind), containing some 24,000 shlokas. ... Brahma is a very important Hindu God. ... The Bhagavata Purana (sometimes rendered as Bhagavatha Purana), also known as the Srimad Bhagavatam, written c. ... â€œOmâ€ redirects here. ... According to Vedas, Pururavas is a mythological entity associated with the Surya (the sun) and Usha (the dawn), and is believed to resided in the middle region of the cosmos. ... The Treta Yuga is the second out of four yugas, or ages of man, in the religion of Hinduism, following the Satya Yuga of perfect morality and preceding the Dvapara Yuga. ...

Other "Vedas"

The term upaveda ("secondary knowledge") is used in traditional literature to designate the subjects of certain technical works.^[56]^[57] They have no relation to the Vedas, except as subjects worthy of study despite their secular character. Lists of what subjects are included in this class differ among sources. The Charanavyuha mentions four Upavedas: Shaunaka (a patronym of Shunaka little dog, the name of a Rishi) is the name applied to teachers, and to a Shakha of the Atharvaveda. ...

But Sushruta and Bhavaprakasha mention Ayurveda as an upaveda of the Atharvaveda. Sthapatyaveda (architecture), Shilpa Shastras (arts and crafts) are mentioned as fourth upaveda according to later sources. Ayurveda (Devanagari: ) or Ayurvedic medicine is an ancient system of health care that is native to the Indian subcontinent. ... Martial arts have been associated with avatars, such as Balarama, in ancient Hindu mythological texts The Indian subcontinent is home to a variety of martial arts, including Pehlwani, Vajra Mushti, Gatka, and Dravidian martial arts (Kalarippayattu, Marma Adi). ... Indian classical dance is a misnomer, and actually refers to Natya, the sacred Hindu musical theatre styles. ... The origins of Indian classical music can be found from the oldest of scriptures, part of the Hindu tradition, the Vedas. ... The Indian subcontinent is home to a variety of martial arts, including Pehlwani, Gatka, Vajra Mushti and Dravidian martial arts. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Sushruta Samhita. ... The main entrance to Angkor The temple is a representation of the macrocosm (the universe) as well as the microcosm (the inner space). ... Shilpa Shastras (Sanskrit: ) are ancient artistic texts in India that describe the standards for Hindu religious iconography. ...

Some post-Vedic texts, including the Mahabharata, the Natyasastra and certain Puranas, refer to themselves as the "fifth Veda".^[58] The earliest reference to such a "fifth Veda" is found in the Chandogya Upanishad. "Dravida Veda" is a term for canonical Tamil Bhakti texts. For the film by Peter Brook, see The Mahabharata (1989 film). ... The Natya Shastra or NÄtyaÅ›Ästra is the principal work of dramatic theory in the Sanskrit drama of classical India. ... The Puranas are part of Hindu Smriti; these religious scriptures discuss devotion and mythology. ... The notion of a fifth veda (Sanskrit: ), that is, of a text which lies outside than the four canonical Vedas but nonetheless has the status of a Veda, is one that has been advanced in a number of post-Vedic Hindu texts, in order to accord a particular text or... The Chandogya Upanishad is one of the main ten Upanishads of Hinduism. ... The Nalayira Divya Prabandha (or Nalayira(4000) Divya Prabhamdham) is a divine collection of 4,000 verses (Naalayira in Tamil means four thousand) composed before 8th century AD[1], by the 12 Alvars, and was compiled in its present form by Nathamuni during the 9th â€“ 10th centuries. ... Tamil ( ; IPA ) is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Tamils in India and Sri Lanka, with smaller communities of speakers in many other countries. ... Bhakti (DevanÄgarÄ«: à¤à¤•à¥à¤¤à¤¿) is a word of Sanskrit origin meaning devotion and also the path of devotion itself, as in Bhakti-Yoga. ...

Notes

^ see e.g. MacDonell 2004, p. 29-39; Sanskrit literature (2003) in Philip's Encyclopedia. Accesed 2007-08-09
^ see e.g. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p. 3; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003, p. 68
^ Apte, pp. 109f. has "not of the authorship of man, of divine origin"
^ Apte 1965, p. 887
^ Muller 1891, p. 17-18
^ Flood 1996, p. 82
^ Chahal, Dr. Devindar Singh (Jan-June 2006). "Is Sikhism a Unique Religion or a Vedantic Religion?". Understanding Sikhism - The Research Journal 8 (1): 3-5. Retrieved on 2007-11-24.
^ (1983) Aad Guru Granth Sahib. Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee, Amritsar.
^ Monier-Williams 2006, p. 1015; Apte 1965, p. 856
^ K.F. Geldner. Der Rig-Veda, Harvard Oriental Series 33-37, Cambridge 1951
^ see e.g. Pokorny's 1959 Indogermanisches Etymologisches Wörterbuch s.v. u̯(e)id-².
^ Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003, p. 69.
^ Holredge 1995, p. 7
^ For the possibility of written texts during second century BCE see: Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003, p. 69; For oral composition and oral transmission for "many hundreds of years" before being written down, see: Avari 2007, p. 76.
^ Flood 1996, p. 37
^ Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003, p. 68
^ Michaels 2004, p. 51.
^ Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003, p. 69.
^ 37,575 are Rigvedic. Of the remaining, 34,857 appear in the other three Samhitas, and 16,405 are known only from Brahmanas, Upanishads or Sutras)
^ Michaels 2004, p. 51.
^ Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003, p. 69.
^ For a table of all Vedic texts see Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003, p. 100–101.
^ Flood 1996, p. 39.
^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p. 3; Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003, p. 68
^ MacDonell 2004, p. 29-39
^ Witzel, M., "The Development of the Vedic Canon and its Schools : The Social and Political Milieu" in Witzel 1997, p. 257-348
^ For Rig Veda as the "oldest significant extant Indian text" see: Avari 2007, p. 77.
^ For 1,028 hymns and 10,600 verses and division into ten mandalas, see: Avari 2007, p. 77.
^ For characterization of content and mentions of deities including Agni, Indra, Varuna, Soma, Surya, etc. see: Avari 2007, p. 77.
^ For composition over 500 years dated 1400 BCE to 900 BCE, see: Avari 2007, p. 77.
^ India: What Can It Teach Us: A Course of Lectures Delivered Before the University of Cambridge by F. Max Müller; World Treasures of the Library of Congress Beginnings by Irene U. Chambers, Michael S. Roth.
^ Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003, p. 68.
^ Drews, Robert (2004). Early Riders: The beginnings of mounted warfare in Asia and Europe. New York: Routledge, 50.
^ Apte 1965, p. 981.
^ Michaels 2004, p. 51.
^ For 1875 total verses, see numbering given in Ralph T. H. Griffith. Griffith's introduction mentions the recension history for his text. Repetitions may be found by consulting the cross-index in Griffith pp. 491-99.
^ Apte 1965, p. 271.
^ Apte 1965, p. 37.
^ Mayrhofer, EWAia I.60
^ Michaels 2004, p. 56.
^ Michaels 2004, p. 56.
^ Flood 1996, p. 37.
^ Michaels 2004, p. 56.
^ Michaels 2004, p. 56.
^ Apte 1965, p. 37.
^ Flood 1996, p. 36.
^ Witzel, Michael, "Vedas and Upaniṣads", in: Flood 2003, p. 76.
^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1957, p. 3.
^ Michaels 2004, p. 56.
^ Zaehner 1966, p. vii.
^ Flood 1996, p. 42.
^ Apte 1965, p. 387.
^ Flood 1996, p. 111 dates it to the 4th century CE.
^ Vishnu Purana, translation by Horace Hayman Wilson, 1840, Ch IV, http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp078.htm
^ Muir 1861, pp. 20-31
^ Monier-Williams 2006, p. 207. [1] Accessed 5 April 2007.
^ Apte 1965, p. 293.
^ Sullivan 1994, p. 385

Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 328th day of the year (329th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Indogermanisches Etymologisches WÃ¶rterbuch (The Indo-European Etymological Dictionary), an updated and slimmed-down reworking of the three-volume Vergleichendes WÃ¶rterbuch der indogermanischen Sprachen of Alois Walde and Julius Pokorny (1927-32) by the Austrian-German comparative linguist and Celtic languages expert Julius Pokorny was published in 1959. ... Manfred Mayrhofer (born 26 September 1926 in Linz, Austria) is an Indo-Europeanist specialized on Indo-Iranian languages. ...

References

Arthur Anthony Macdonell (1854 - 1930), 7th of Lochgarry, was a noted Sanskrit scholar. ... Photo of Monier Monier-Williams by Lewis Carroll Sir Monier Monier-Williams (1819â€“1899) studied, documented and taught Asian languages in England, and compiled one of the most widely-used Sanskrit-English dictionaries. ... John Muir, born 1810, Glasgow, Scotland, died, 1882, Edinburgh, Scotland, was a Scottish sanskritist. ... Max Müller Friedrich Max Müller (December 6, 1823 – October 28, 1900), more commonly known as Max Müller, was a German Orientalist, one of the founders of Indian studies, who virtually created the discipline of comparative religion. ... Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan ,Tamil:(à®šà®°à¯à®µà¯‡à®ªà®³à¯à®³à®¿ à®°à®¾à®¤à®¾à®•à®¿à®°à¯à®·à¯à®£à®©à¯), (September 5, 1888 â€“ April 17, 1975), was a philosopher and statesman. ... Michael E. J. Witzel (born 1943) is Wales Professor of Sanskrit and Chair of the Committee on South Asian Studies at Harvard University. ... Robert Charles Zaehner (1913 - 1974) was an expert in Ethics and Eastern religions [1]. According to Phoenix Press, he was educated at Tonbridge School and Christ Church, Oxford where he gained first class honours in Persian and Avestan. ...

Literature

Contents

Etymology and usage

Dating

Categories of Vedic texts

Vedic schools or recensions

The Four Vedas

The Rig-Veda

The Yajur-Veda

The Sama-Veda

The Atharva-Veda

Brahmanas

Vedanta

The Vedas in post-Vedic literature

Vedanga

Puranas

Other "Vedas"

Notes

References

Literature

See also

External links

Contents

Etymology and usage GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Dating

Categories of Vedic texts

Vedic schools or recensions

The Four Vedas

The Rig-Veda

The Yajur-Veda

The Sama-Veda

The Atharva-Veda

Brahmanas

Vedanta

The Vedas in post-Vedic literature

Vedanga

Puranas

Other "Vedas"

Notes

References

Literature

See also

External links

Etymology and usage