NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Titanium dioxide

Titanium dioxide, also known as titanium(IV) oxide or titania, is the naturally occurring oxide of titanium, chemical formula Ti O₂. When used as a pigment, it is called titanium white, Pigment White 6, or CI 77891. It is noteworthy for its wide range of applications, from paint to sunscreen to food colouring. Solubility is a chemical property referring to the ability for a given substance, the solute, to dissolve in a solvent. ... The standard enthalpy of formation or standard heat of formation of a compound is the change of enthalpy that accompanies the formation of 1 mole of a substance in its standard state from its constituent elements in their standard states (the most stable form of the element at 1 atmosphere... The joule (IPA: or ) (symbol: J) is the SI unit of energy. ... The mole (symbol: mol) is the SI base unit that measures an amount of substance. ... Council Directive 67/548/EEC of 27 June 1967 on the approximation of laws, regulations and administrative provisions relating to the classification, packaging and labelling of dangerous substances (as amended) is the main European Union law concerning chemical safety. ... NFPA 704 is a standard maintained by the U.S. National Fire Protection Association. ... Image File history File links NFPA_704. ... For other uses, see Flash point (disambiguation). ... This article is about the electrically charged particle. ... Titanium(II) oxide (TiO) is an inorganic chemical compound. ... Titanium(III) oxide (Ti2O3) is a chemical compound. ... Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2), sometimes known as zirconia, is a white crystalline oxide of zirconium. ... Hafnium dioxide (HfO2) or hafnia is a hafnium oxide. ... The plimsoll symbol as used in shipping In chemistry, the standard state of a material is its state at 1 bar (100 kilopascals exactly). ... An oxide is a chemical compound containing at least one oxygen atom and other elements. ... General Name, symbol, number titanium, Ti, 22 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 4, 4, d Appearance silvery grey-white metallic Standard atomic weight 47. ... General Name, symbol, number titanium, Ti, 22 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 4, 4, d Appearance silvery grey-white metallic Standard atomic weight 47. ... This article is about the chemical element and its most stable form, or dioxygen. ... Natural Ultramarine pigment in powdered form. ... Colour Index International is a reference database, jointly maintained by the Society of Dyers and Colourists and the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists. ... The color of food is considered important in its enjoyment. ...

Occurrence

Titanium dioxide occurs in nature as the well-known naturally occurring minerals rutile, anatase and brookite. The most common form is rutile^[1], which is also the most stable form. Anatase and brookite both convert to rutile upon heating.^[1] Rutile, anatase and brookite all contain 6 coordinate titanium. Additionally there are three metastable forms produced synthetically and five high pressure forms: Rutile is a mineral composed primarily of titanium dioxide, TiO2. ... Three crystals from Gouveia, Minas Gerais, Brazil Anatase is one of the three mineral forms of titanium dioxide (the other two being brookite and rutile). ... Brookite is a mineral consisting of titanium oxide, TiO2, and hence identical with rutile and anatase in composition, but crystallizing in the orthorhombic system (see crystal structure). ... Rutile is a mineral composed primarily of titanium dioxide, TiO2. ... Three crystals from Gouveia, Minas Gerais, Brazil Anatase is one of the three mineral forms of titanium dioxide (the other two being brookite and rutile). ... Brookite is a mineral consisting of titanium oxide, TiO2, and hence identical with rutile and anatase in composition, but crystallizing in the orthorhombic system (see crystal structure). ... Rutile is a mineral composed primarily of titanium dioxide, TiO2. ... Rutile is a mineral composed primarily of titanium dioxide, TiO2. ... Three crystals from Gouveia, Minas Gerais, Brazil Anatase is one of the three mineral forms of titanium dioxide (the other two being brookite and rutile). ... Brookite is a mineral consisting of titanium oxide, TiO2, and hence identical with rutile and anatase in composition, but crystallizing in the orthorhombic system (see crystal structure). ...

The naturally occurring oxides can be mined and serve as a source for commercial titanium. The metal can also be mined from other minerals such as ilmenite or leucoxene ores, or one of the purest forms, rutile beach sand. Star sapphires and rubies get their asterism from rutile impurities present in them.^[10] Rutile is a mineral composed primarily of titanium dioxide, TiO2. ... In crystallography, the tetragonal crystal system is one of the 7 lattice point groups. ... Three crystals from Gouveia, Minas Gerais, Brazil Anatase is one of the three mineral forms of titanium dioxide (the other two being brookite and rutile). ... In crystallography, the tetragonal crystal system is one of the 7 lattice point groups. ... Brookite is a mineral consisting of titanium oxide, TiO2, and hence identical with rutile and anatase in composition, but crystallizing in the orthorhombic system (see crystal structure). ... In crystallography, the orthorhombic crystal system is one of the 7 lattice point groups. ... Titanium dioxide (B) or TiO2(B) is the monoclinic allotrope of titanium dioxide. ... In crystallography, the monoclinic crystal system is one of the 7 lattice point groups. ... In crystallography, the tetragonal crystal system is one of the 7 lattice point groups. ... In crystallography, the orthorhombic crystal system is one of the 7 lattice point groups. ... Lead(IV) oxide, PbO2, also plumbic oxide and lead dioxide, is an oxide of lead, with lead in oxidation state +4. ... In crystallography, the orthorhombic crystal system is one of the 7 lattice point groups. ... Baddeleyite is a mineral that consists of zirconia (ZrO2). ... In crystallography, the monoclinic crystal system is one of the 7 lattice point groups. ... In crystallography, the orthorhombic crystal system is one of the 7 lattice point groups. ... Lead(II) chloride Lead(II) chloride is the insoluble salt made by adding sodium chloride to soluble lead(II) compounds such as lead(II) nitrate. ... In crystallography, the orthorhombic crystal system is one of the 7 lattice point groups. ... General Name, symbol, number titanium, Ti, 22 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 4, 4, d Appearance silvery grey-white metallic Standard atomic weight 47. ... Ilmenite is a weakly magnetic iron-black or steel-gray mineral found in metamorphic and igneous rocks. ... Leucoxene is a finely granular yellow to brown alteration product of titanium minerals. ... For other uses, see Ore (disambiguation). ... Rutile is a mineral composed primarily of titanium dioxide, TiO2. ... A star sapphire ring with two diamonds on a silver band. ... This article is about the mineral. ... Asterism on the surface of a blue star sapphire Asterism as seen in a lab-created blue star sapphire This article is about the characteristic in some gems. ...

Spectral lines from titanium oxide are prominent in cool class M stars which are cool enough to allow molecules of this chemical to form. This article is about the astronomical object. ...

Production

Crude titanium dioxide is purified via titanium tetrachloride in the chloride process. In this process, the crude ore (containing at least 90% TiO₂) is reduced with carbon, oxidized with chlorine to give titanium tetrachloride. This titanium tetrachloride is distilled, and re-oxidized with oxygen to give pure titanium dioxide.^[11] Titanium tetrachloride (or titanium(IV) chloride) is the chemical compound with the formla TiCl4. ... The Chloride process is used to purify titanium dioxide from minerals containing at least 90% titanium dioxide. ... For other uses, see Carbon (disambiguation). ... General Name, symbol, number chlorine, Cl, 17 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 17, 3, p Appearance yellowish green Standard atomic weight 35. ... Titanium tetrachloride (or titanium(IV) chloride) is the chemical compound with the formla TiCl4. ... This article is about the chemical element and its most stable form, or dioxygen. ...

Another widely used process utilizes ilmenite as the titanium dioxide source, which is digested in sulfuric acid. The by-product iron(II) sulfate is crystallized and filtered-off to yield only the titanium salt in the digestion solution, which is processed further to give pure titanium dioxide. Another method for upgrading ilmenite is called the Becher Process. Ilmenite is a weakly magnetic iron-black or steel-gray mineral found in metamorphic and igneous rocks. ... Sulfuric acid, (also known as sulphuric acid) H2SO4, is a strong mineral acid. ... Iron(II) sulfate is the chemical compound with the formula (FeSO4). ...

Applications

Titanium dioxide is the most widely used white pigment because of its brightness and very high refractive index (n=2.7), in which it is surpassed only by a few other materials. Approximately 4 million tons of pigmentary TiO₂ are consumed annually worldwide. When deposited as a thin film, its refractive index and colour make it an excellent reflective optical coating for dielectric mirrors and some gemstones, for example "mystic fire topaz". TiO₂ is also an effective opacifier in powder form, where it is employed as a pigment to provide whiteness and opacity to products such as paints, coatings, plastics, papers, inks, foods, medicines (i.e. pills and tablets) as well as most toothpastes. Used as a white food colouring, it has E number E171. In cosmetic and skin care products, titanium dioxide is used both as a pigment and a thickener. It is also used as a tattoo pigment and styptic pencils. The refractive index (or index of refraction) of a medium is a measure for how much the speed of light (or other waves such as sound waves) is reduced inside the medium. ... Many materials have a well-characterized refractive index, but these indices depend strongly upon the wavelength of light. ... A dielectric mirror is a special kind of a mirror, made of a substrate of glass or some other optical material, on which one or more thin layers of dielectric material are deposited, to form an optical coating. ... For other uses, see Gemstone (disambiguation). ... This article is about the mineral or gemstone. ... Opacifier - A chemical agent added to a material, such as rocket propellant, to make it opaque. ... A substance or object that is opaque is neither transparent nor translucent. ... For other uses, see Paint (disambiguation). ... A coating is a covering that is applied to an object to protect it or change its appearance. ... For other uses, see Plastic (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Paper (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Ink (disambiguation). ... For the chemical substances known as medicines, see medication. ... Modern toothpaste gel Toothpaste is a paste or gel dentifrice used to clean and improve the aesthetic appearance and health of teeth. ... Food coloring spreading on a thin water film. ... For the mathematical constant see: E (mathematical constant). ... Make-up redirects here. ... A section of Human Skin In zootomy and dermatology, skin is an organ of the integumentary system made up of a layer of tissues that guard underlying muscles and organs. ... Thickening agents, or thickeners, are substances which, when added to the mixture, increase its viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties, like eg. ... -1... A styptic or hemostatic pencil is a short stick of medication, usually containing alum, which is used for staunching blood by causing blood vessels to contract at the site of the wound. ...

This pigment is used extensively in plastics and other applications for its UV resistant properties where it acts as a UV absorber, efficiently transforming destructive UV light energy into heat.

In ceramic glazes titanium dioxide acts as an opacifier and seeds crystal formation. In almost every sunscreen with a physical blocker, titanium dioxide is found because of its high refractive index, its strong UV light absorbing capabilities and its resistance to discolouration under ultraviolet light. This advantage enhances its stability and ability to protect the skin from ultraviolet light. Sunscreens designed for infants or people with sensitive skin are often based on titanium dioxide and/or zinc oxide, as these mineral UV blockers are less likely to cause skin irritation than chemical UV absorber ingredients, such as avobenzone. Composite body, painted, and glazed bottle. ... For other uses, see Crystal (disambiguation). ... Sunscreen (also known as sunblock, suntan lotion) is a lotion, spray or other topical product that is intended to protect the skin from the suns ultraviolet (UV) radiation. ... For other uses, see Ultraviolet (disambiguation). ... Zinc oxide is a chemical compound with formula ZnO. It is nearly insoluble in water but soluble in acids or alkalis. ... In high energy physics experiments, an absorber is a block of material used to absorb some of the energy of an incident particle. ... Avobenzone (trade names ParsolÂ® 1789, EusolexÂ® 9020, EscalolÂ® 517 and others, INCI Butyl Methoxydibenzoylmethane) is an oil soluble ingredient used in sunscreen products to absorb both UVA and UVB rays. ...

Titanium oxide is also used as a semiconductor.^[12] A semiconductor is a solid material that has electrical conductivity in between that of a conductor and that of an insulator; it can vary over that wide range either permanently or dynamically. ...

As a photocatalyst

Titanium dioxide, particularly in the anatase form, is a photocatalyst under ultraviolet light. Recently it has been found that titanium dioxide, when spiked with nitrogen ions, or doped with metal oxide like tungsten trioxide, is also a photocatalyst under visible and UV light. The strong oxidative potential of the positive holes oxidizes water to create hydroxyl radicals. It can also oxidize oxygen or organic materials directly. Titanium dioxide is thus added to paints, cements, windows, tiles, or other products for sterilizing, deodorizing and anti-fouling properties and is also used as a hydrolysis catalyst. It is also used in the Graetzel cell, a type of chemical solar cell. In chemistry, photocatalysis is the acceleration of a photoreaction in the presence of a catalyst. ... ed|other uses|reduction}} Illustration of a redox reaction Redox (shorthand for reduction/oxidation reaction) describes all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation number (oxidation state) changed. ... For the following two reasons the electron hole was introduced into calculations: If an electron is excited into higher state it leaves a hole in its old state. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... Hydroxide is a functional group consisting of oxygen and hydrogen: -O−H It has a charge of 1-. The term hydroxyl group is used when the functional group -OH is counted as a substituent of an organic compound. ... Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction or process in which a chemical compound is broken down by reaction with water. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Catalysis. ... Dye-sensitized solar cells are photoelectrochemical cells that use photo-sensitization of wide-band-gap mesoporous oxide semiconductors. ...

The photocatylic properties of titanium dioxide were discovered by Akira Fujishima in 1967. The process on the surface of the titanium dioxide was called the Honda-Fujishima effect.^[13]

Titanium dioxide has potential for use in energy production: as a photocatalyst, it can

As TiO₂ is exposed to UV light, it becomes increasingly hydrophilic; thus, it can be used for anti-fogging coatings or self-cleaning windows. TiO₂ incorporated into outdoor building materials, such as paving stones in noxer blocks or paints, can substantially reduce concentrations of airborne pollutants such as volatile organic compounds and nitrogen oxides.^[15] Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction or process in which a chemical compound is broken down by reaction with water. ... The adjective hydrophilic describes something that likes water (from Greek hydros = water; philos = friend). ... Anti-fog agents, also known as anti-fogging agents and treatments, prevent the condensation of water on a surface in the form of small droplets which resemble fog. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Noxer. ... This article describes a highly specialized aspect of its subject in the Terminology and legal definitions section. ... // The term nitrogen oxide typically refers to any binary compound of oxygen and nitrogen, or to a mixture of such compounds: Nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen(II) oxide Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), nitrogen(IV) oxide Nitrous oxide (N2O), nitrogen (I) oxide Dinitrogen trioxide (N2O3), nitrogen(II, IV) oxide Dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4), nitrogen...

For wastewater remediation

TiO₂ offers great potential as an industrial technology for detoxification or remediation of wastewater due to several factors. Generally, remediation means giving a remedy. ... Wastewater is any water that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence. ...

Photolysis refers to any chemical reaction in which a compound is broken down by light. ...

Other applications

It is also used in resistance-type lambda probes (a type of oxygen sensor). An automotive lambda probe, also known as a lambda sensor, O2 sensor, oxygen sensor, lambda sond or EGO (exhaust gas oxygen) sensor, is a small sensor inserted into the exhaust system of a petrol engine to measure the volume of oxygen (O2) remaining in the exhaust gas to allow an... // An oxygen sensor is an electronic device that measures the proportion of oxygen (O2) in the gas or liquid being analyzed. ...

Titanium dioxide is what allows osseointegration between an artificial medical implant and bone. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... An implant is an artificial device made to replace and act as a missing biological structure. ... This article is about the skeletal organs. ...

Titanium dioxide in solution or suspension can be used to cleave protein that contains the amino acid proline at the site where proline is present. This breakthrough in cost-effective protein splitting took place at Arizona State University in 2006.^[16] A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin showing coloured alpha helices. ... Proline is an Î±-amino acid with the chemical formula HO2CCH(NH[CH2)3]. L-Proline is one of the twenty DNA-encoded amino acids. ... Arizona State University (ASU) is a public research institution of higher education and research with campuses located in the Phoenix Metropolitan Area. ...

Titanium dioxide on silica is being developed as a form of odor control in cat litter. The purchased photocatalyst is vastly cheaper than the purchased silica beads, per usage, and prolongs their effective odor-eliminating life substantially. A packet of clumping cat litter & a litter box Cat litter is one of any of a number of materials used in litter boxes to absorb moisture from cat feces and urine, which reduces foul odors such as ammonia and renders them more tolerable within human dwellings. ...

In 1995 the Research Institute of Toto Ltd. discovered the superhydrophilicity phenomenon for glass coated with titanium dioxide and exposed to sun light. Professor Fujishima and his group discovered that^[13] This resulted in the development of self-cleaning glass.

Titanium dioxide is also used as a material in the memristor, a new electronic circuit element. An electric circuit, or electrical network, consists of electrical elements or components connected by conductors. ...

Historical uses

The Vinland map, the map of America ("Vinland") that was supposedly drawn during mid-15th century based on data from the Viking Age, has been declared a forgery on the basis that its ink contains traces of the TiO₂-form anatase; TiO₂ was not synthetically produced before the 1920s. In 1992, a counter-claim was made that the compound can be formed from ancient ink.^{[citation needed]} The Vinland map. ... North American redirects here. ... For the historical novel by George Mackay Brown, which depicts Leifr EirÃkssons voyage, see Vinland (novel). ... Viking Age is the term denoting the years from about 800 to 1066 in Scandinavian History[1][2][3]. // The Vikings have been much maligned in European history, due in large part to their violent attacks on Christians in the first centuries of their excursions out of Scandinavia. ...

Titanium dioxide white paint was used to paint the Saturn V rocket, which is so far the only rocket that has sent astronauts to the moon. In 2002, a spectral analysis of J002E3, a celestial object, showed that it had titanium dioxide on it, giving evidence it may be a Saturn V S-IVB. For the moon designated Saturn V, see Rhea. ... Also see: 2002 (number). ... The S-IVB stage from the Apollo 7 flight in Earth orbit. ... The S-IVB (sometimes S4b) was built by the Douglas Aircraft Company and served as the third stage on the Saturn V and second stage on the Saturn IB. It had one J-2 engine. ...

See also

How a Noxer block works Noxer paving stone is a product of Mitsubishi Materials Corporation which uses the catalytic properties of titanium oxide (TiO2) in order to remove nitrogen oxides (NOx) from the air. ...

toxicoligy

Titanium dioxide has recently been classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) as an IARC Group 2B carcinogen possibly carcinogen to humans. Titanium dioxide accounts for 70% of the total production volume of pigments worldwide. It is widely used to provide whiteness and opacity to products such as paints, plastics, papers, inks, foods, and toothpastes. It is also used in cosmetic and skin care products, and it is present in almost every sunblock, where it helps protect the skin from ultraviolet light.

With such widespread use of titanium dioxide, it is important to understand that the IARC conclusions are based on very specific evidence. This evidence showed that high concentrations of pigment-grade (powdered) and ultrafine titanium dioxide dust caused respiratory tract cancer in rats exposed by inhalation and intratracheal instillation*. The series of biological events or steps that produce the rat lung cancers (e.g. particle deposition, impaired lung clearance, cell injury, fibrosis, mutations and ultimately cancer) have also been seen in people working in dusty environments. Therefore, the observations of cancer in animals were considered, by IARC, as relevant to people doing jobs with exposures to titanium dioxide dust. For example, titanium dioxide production workers may be exposed to high dust concentrations during packing, milling, site cleaning and maintenance, if there are insufficient dust control measures in place. However, it should be noted that the human studies conducted so far do not suggest an association between occupational exposure to titanium dioxide and an increased risk for cancer.

The Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) is Canada's hazard communication standard. The WHMIS Controlled Products Regulations require that chemicals, listed in Group 1 or Group 2 in the IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans, be classified under WHMIS Class D2A (carcinogenic). The classification decision on titanium dioxide has been published on the IARC website and in a summary article published in The Lancet

Representatives from Health Canada (National Office of WHMIS) recently consulted with the Quebec CSST and CCOHS (the two main agencies providing WHMIS classifications to the public) regarding the implications of the IARC decision to the WHMIS classification of titanium dioxide. It was agreed that titanium dioxide does now meet the criteria for WHMIS D2A (carcinogen) based on the information released by IARC to date, and that it is not necessary to wait for release of the full monograph.

Manufacturers and suppliers of titanium dioxide are advised to review and update their material safety data sheets and product labels based on this new information as soon as possible. Employers should review their occupational hygiene programs to ensure that exposure to titanium dioxide dust is eliminated or reduced to the minimum possible. Workers should be educated concerning this potential newly recognized risk to their health and trained in proper work procedures.

References

^ ^a ^b Greenwood, N. N.; Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements, 2nd Edition, Oxford:Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 0-7506-3365-4.
^ Marchand R., Brohan L., Tournoux M. (1980). "A new form of titanium dioxide and the potassium octatitanate K₂Ti₈O₁₇". Materials Research Bulletin 15 (8): 1129-1133.
^ Latroche, M.; Brohan, L.; Marchand, R.; Tournoux, (1989). "New hollandite oxides: TiO₂(H) and K_0.06TiO₂". Journal of Solid State Chemistry 81 (1): 78-82. doi:10.1016/0022-4596(89)90204-1.
^ J. Akimoto, Y. Gotoh, Y. Oosawa, N. Nonose, T. Kumagai, K. Aoki, H. Takei (1994). "Topotactic Oxidation of Ramsdellite-Type Li_0.5TiO₂, a New Polymorph of Titanium Dioxide: TiO₂(R)". Journal of Solid State Chemistry 113 (1): 27-36. doi:10.1006/jssc.1994.1337.
^ P. Y. Simons, F. Dachille (1967). "The structure of TiO2II, a high-pressure phase of TiO₂". Acta Crystallographica 23 (2): 334–336. doi:10.1107/S0365110X67002713.
^ Sato H. , Endo S, Sugiyama M, Kikegawa T, Shimomura O, Kusaba K (1991). "Baddeleyite-Type High-Pressure Phase of TiO₂". Science 251 (4995): 786 – 788. doi:10.1126/science.251.4995.786.
^ Dubrovinskaia N A, Dubrovinsky L S., Ahuja R, Prokopenko V B., Dmitriev V., Weber H.-P., Osorio-Guillen J. M., Johansson B (2001). "Experimental and Theoretical Identification of a New High-Pressure TiO₂ Polymorph.". Phys. Rev. Lett. 87: 275501. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.87.275501.
^ Mattesini M, de Almeida J. S., Dubrovinsky L., Dubrovinskaia L, Johansson B., Ahuja R. (2004). "High-pressure and high-temperature synthesis of the cubic TiO₂ polymorph". Phys. Rev. B 70: 212101. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.70.212101.
^ Dubrovinsky L. S., Dubrovinskaia N. A., Swamy V., Muscat J., Harrison N. M., Ahuja R., Holm B., Johansson B. (2001). "Materials science: The hardest known oxide". Nature 410: 653-654. doi:10.1038/35070650.
^ Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 451 – 53. ISBN 0-19-850341-5.
^ Titanium Dioxide Manufacturing Processes. Millennium Inorganic Chemicals. Retrieved on 2007-09-05.
^ M. D. Earle (1942). "The Electrical Conductivity of Titanium Dioxide". Physical Review 61 (1-2): 56.
^ ^a ^b "Discovery and applications of photocatalysis —Creating a comfortable future by making use of light energy"
^ (Document Unavilable)
^ "Smog-busting paint soaks up noxious gases", Jenny Hogan, 'newscientist.com, 4 February 2004
^ B. J. Jones, M. J. Vergne, D. M. Bunk, L. E. Locascio and M. A. Hayes (2007). "Cleavage of Peptides and Proteins Using Light-Generated Radicals from Titanium Dioxide". Anal. Chem. 79 (4): 1327-1332. doi:10.1021/ac0613737.

A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ... Oxford University Press (OUP) is a highly-respected publishing house and a department of the University of Oxford in England. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 248th day of the year (249th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Physical Review is one of the oldest and most-respected scientific journals publishing research on all aspects of physics. ... is the 35th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Analytical Chemistry (abbreviated as ) is a scientific journal for original contributions of fundamental research in analytical chemistry. ... A digital object identifier (or DOI) is a standard for persistently identifying a piece of intellectual property on a digital network and associating it with related data, the metadata, in a structured extensible way. ...

Contents

Occurrence

Production

Applications

As a photocatalyst

For wastewater remediation

Other applications

Historical uses

See also

toxicoligy

References

External links

Contents

Occurrence GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Production

Applications

As a photocatalyst

For wastewater remediation

Other applications

Historical uses

See also

toxicoligy

References

External links

Occurrence